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"0004">Help Guide <1><1>"0005">Computer Basics <1><1>"0006">English <1><1>"0007">Geography <1><1>"0008">History- American <1><1>"0009">History- World <1><1>"000a">Mathematics "000b">Terms & Definitions"000c">Basic Math"000d">Algebra"000e">Geometry"000f">Additional Math Links"0010">Conversion Factors <1>"0011">Science "0012">Astronomy"0013">Chemistry"0014">Physics"0015">Geology and Biology <1>"0016">U.S. Government Options "0004">HELP<1><1>"0017">Main Menu<1><1>"0018">Bookmark Current Page<1><1>"0018">Bookmarks<1><1>"0019">Credits p9Ƅ DDB"D"$DB"D"$B"$D"$DB"$D"$B"$B"$DB"$DB"$D"$DB"DB"DB"$D"$D"D"$D"$D"$D"$D"DB"$B"D"D"$D"$D"$D"DB"$D"D"B"D"$D"$D"D"$DB"$B"D"D"$"$D"$DB"D"D"D"$B"DB"$D"$D"$B"$D"DB"$DB"$B"D"$D"$DB"$DB"DB"DBDB"D"$B"$D"$D"$DB"$DB"$D"$D"D"$D"$DB"$D"$DB"DB"D"$DB"D"$D"$D"$D"D"$DB"D"D"$DB"$BD"D"$D"$D"$D"$D"$D"$"DB"D"DB"$D"$DB"B"$D"D"D"$D"DB"$D"D "$B"$DB"B"$D"$D"$DB"D"$DB"DB"B"$DB"DB"D"DB"$D"DB"D"$DB"DB"$D"$DB"$D"D"DB"DB"DB"D"$DB"$D"$DB"D"D"D"$"DB"$DB"D"D"D"$B"$DB"$D"DB"$D$DB"D"DB"$D"$D"D"$DB$DB"DB"$DB"$DB"D"$D"D"$D"$D"$D"$D"$DB"D B B "$D"DB"D"$D ""DB$DB"D"DB $D"D"$DB"#32"!"$D"3!"$D" "32" "$D""#30"3""DB#32#32 $D 32"#3""D "32""#2D #3""2"D "#3!3""!DB"#3232" D !3""!32 DB!"#32#3!"!32"D""#3!"!322"DB"3"3!"!"32"2 "DB2"2#3"!"!#32 #3"DB"32"#3"#2#3DB "23"32#2#2D"#23232#2D"323232#"D "323"#32# $DB#323""#32# "BDB#323 "3"2 "DB#32323#2DB#3"3"#3 "DB""32#3 "3!!"D "3" "#32"!$D " #3 $DB" " 3 $D"#3"#3 "D "32 #32 D  3"3"D" #3#3 3 "DB #"323"#3 "$DB #23#32 #32"$DB "#2"#3"#3"DB  "#32#3$DB #32#2D" "32 #"D"  "3 "$D "$B"3 D B"DB3"DBDB#32DB D#32D D"32$DBDB3$DBD"3"$DB"D!"!$D"D"$D"DB!"D$D"$DDD"$D"$D"$B"D"DB"$D"$D"$D"$B"D"DB"$DB"DB"$D"$D"$B"D"DB"$D"$BDB"D"D"$D "$B"D"$DB"$B"D $BD"$DB$D"$D"$B"D"$D"$B"D $D $D"$D"$D"$B"D"$D"$B"$DBD $D"$D"D"$D"$B"D"$D"$B"$DBDBD"$D"D"$D"$B"D"$D"$B"$D $DBD"$D"D"$D"$B"D"$D"$B"D $D $DB"DB"D"DB"$B"D"$DB"$B"DBD $DB"DB"DB"D"DB"$DBDB""D"$DB"DB"D"DB"$D" "$BD"$DB"DB"D"DB"$D $B D $D $DBD $DB DBDBDB"DBD$D$D$"$D"$D$D$"$D $DBDBDB$D$BD$D$"DB$DBDBD"D$D $D $D$D$D$BD$D$"DB$DBDBD"D$DBD $D$D$D$BD$D$B"$DBDBD$"$DBDBDBD$D$BD$D$DBDBD$B$D $DBDBD$D$BD$D$"DBDBD$B$D $D $D$DB"DB"$B"D$BD$"$D"$D$D$"$DBD $DBDBD$DPocket Professor Help

Welcome to Pocket Professor KwikNotes!<1><1>Using Pocket Professor is a lot like surfing the Web. Here's how it works:

A Button: Access a page and hyperlink<1>B Button: Back to previous page<1>+Control Pad: Move the navigation arrow to a new position<1>START: Enter the Options menu<1>SELECT: Not used<1><1>Navigation<1>Using the Game Boy Advance +Control Pad, you can move the navigation arrow around the screen. If the page you're looking at is longer than one screen, moving the arrow to the bottom of the screen will make the page scroll down, until you're at the bottom. If you've already scrolled down some, moving the arrow to the top of the screen will make it scroll up.<1>If a page is longer than the screen, you'll see a blue scroll bar on the right side. The box in it shows how far down the page you are.<1><1>Page Up / Down<1>If you press the R Button, the page will quickly scroll down one entire page (the screens height). Similarly, if you press the L Button the screen quickly scrolls up a page. Repeat pressing the appropriate button to get to the end of the text you are looking at.

<1>Following Hyperlinks<1>Hyperlinks are special sections of text that let you jump to a different page. They're in green bold face type. When you move the arrow over a hyperlink, it turns into a pointing hand. If you press the A Button when pointing at a hyperlink, you will jump to the page the hyperlink refers to.<1><1>Some pictures also have hyperlinks in them. If you move the arrow over a picture and the arrow turns into a pointing hand, there's a hyperlink there you can follow.<1><1>Note: this process of moving the arrow onto a hyperlink and pressing the A Button is called "hyperlinking."<1><1>If you follow a hyperlink, and want to go back to the page you were looking at before, press the B Button. Pocket Professor remembers many pages back, so if you keep pressing the B Button, you'll keep going backwards through the pages you've visited.<1><1>The Options Menu<1>If you press START while you're reading a page, you bring up the Options menu. To choose a menu item, move the arrow onto it and press A Button, just as you would for a link. The Options menu has the following choices:<1>Help: Shows you this page. You can also see this page by pressing START when you're at the Options menu.<1>Main Menu: Takes you to the main table of contents.<1>Bookmark Current Page: adds the page you were viewing when you went to the Options menu to the bookmark list. See below for more about the bookmark list.<1>Bookmarks: Takes you the Bookmark List Page. Details about this page are below.<1>Credits: Shows the production credits for Pocket Professor "Kwik Notes".<1><1>Using Bookmarks<1>Pocket Professor allows you to put a "bookmark" on any page of information. Bookmarks allow you to jump quickly to the page by choosing it from the bookmark list. You can put bookmarks on up to 60 pages.<1><1>To add a page to the bookmark list, press START while you are viewing that page. The Options menu will appear. Then, move the arrow onto the option "Bookmark Current Page" and press the A Button. The screen will blink and you'll hear a beeping sound. That means the bookmark has been successfully added to the list. You can go back to reading the page by pressing the B Button. New bookmarks are always added at the top of the list. If the bookmark you add was already in the list, it gets moved to the top. Once you have exceeded 60 bookmarks, the oldest bookmark will be removed from the list.<1><1>To jump to a bookmarked page, go to the Options menu, move the arrow onto "Bookmarks" and press the A Button. This brings up the Bookmark list page. This page shows all of the pages you've bookmarked. Each bookmark acts as a hyperlink to the page, so if you move the arrow over a bookmark and press the A Button, you'll jump to that page.

Enjoy the 3,500 pages of information in Pocket Professor KwikNotes, Vol. 1! Now, immediate access to that Once Learned, Easily Forgotten, and Frequently Hard To Find Again Information, that you need over and over again: at home, school or on the job<1>

Computer Basics Contents

"001a"

"001b">Terms and Definitions<1><1>"001c">What's Inside Your Computer <1><1>"001d">How Circuit Boards Work<1><1>"001e">Turning on the Power <1><1>"001f">Your Operating System <1><1>"0020">Software Basics <1><1>"0021">Microchips <1><1>"0022">RAM <1><1>"0023">Disk Storage <1><1>"0024">Input/ Output Devices <1><1>"0025">Multimedia <1><1>"0026">The Internet <1><1>"0027">What's a Network? <1><1>"0028">Legal Notice English Contents

"0029"

"002a">Terms and Definitions<1><1>"002b">Capitalization Rules <1><1>"002c">Common Foreign Words and Phrases <1><1>"002d">Commonly Confused Words <1><1>"002e">Grammar Rules <1><1>"002f">Punctuation Rules <1><1>"0030">Spelling Rules <1><1>"0031">Steps to Writing a Term Paper<1> Geography Contents

"0032"

The Continents

"0033">Pangaea (The Supercontinent) <1>

World at a Glance (by continent, in order of size)

"0034">Asia "0035">Africa"0036">North America (and Central America)"0037">South America"0038">Antarctica "0039">Europe"003a">Oceania-Australia-New Zealand <1>

World Geographical Records

"003b">World Records"003c">World's Highest Mountain Peaks"003d">World's Highest Volcanoes"003e">World's Highest Waterfalls"003f">World's Largest Islands"0040">World's Longest Rivers <1>

Countries of the World (by continent)

"0041">Africa"0042">Asia, Middle and Far East"0043">Europe"0044">North America (includes Central America)"0045">Oceania-Australia-New Zealand"0046">South America <1>

Explorations and Discoveries

"0047">Africa"0048">Asia"0049">Europe"004a">North America"004b">Oceania-Australia-New Zealand"004c">South America"004d">Arctic, Antarctic, Miscellaneous <1>

U.S. Geography

"004e">Geographic Overview"004f">State Facts (Each U.S. State)"0050">Ten Largest States"0051">Ten Smallest States"0052">U.S. Mountain Peaks Greater than 14,000 feet"0053">Longest U.S. Rivers"0054">The Great Lakes <1>

Additional Geography Links

"0055">Common Map Projections"0056">Longitude and Latitude"0057">Seven Ancient Wonders of the World"0058">World Water Supply"0059">Oceans and Seas (in order of size)"005a">Great Deserts of the World"005b">Major Natural Lakes"005c">Volcanoes (Active/Dormant/Extinct)"005d">Earthquakes"005e">Latitude and Longitude of World Cities (over 115 cities) American History Contents

"005f"

American History at a Glance

"0060">Early Explorations and Settlements (1492-1654)"0061">Pre-Revolutionary War Era (1660-1774)"0062">Revolutionary War Era (1775-1783)"0063">Post Revolutionary War Era (1784-1798)"0064">Early to Mid 19th Century America (1801-1860)"0065">Civil War Era (1861-1865)"0066">Late 19th Century America (1866-1899)"0067">Early 20th Century America (1900-1913)"0068">World War I Era (1914-1918)"0069">Early to Mid 20th Century America (1919-1938)"006a">World War II / Korean War Era (1939-1952)"006b">Mid 20th Century/ Vietnam Era (1953-1975)"006c">Late 20th Century America (1976-1998)"006d">Modern America (1999)"006e">Modern America (2000)"006f">Early 21st Century America (Jan-Jun 2001)"0070">Early 21st Century America (Jul-Dec 2001) <1>"0071">Important Treaties, Acts and Doctrines<1><1>"0072">Native American Tribes "0073">North and Northeast"0074">Northwest"0075">Plains"0076">Southeast"0077">Southwest

America at War

"0078">Revolutionary War (1775-1783)"0079">War of 1812 (1812-1814)"007a">Mexican War (1846-1848)"007b">Civil War (1861-1865)"007c">Spanish-American War (1898)"007d">World War I (1914-1918)"007e">World War II (1939-1945)"007f">Korean War (1950-1953)"0080">Vietnam War (1950-1976)"0081">Persian Gulf War (1990-1991) <1>"0082">American History Terms and Definitions<1> World History Contents

"0083"

Ancient Period: (4500BC-849AD)

"0084">4500-901BC"0085">900-501BC"0086">500-201BC"0087">200-49AD"0088">50-299AD"0089">300-599AD"008a">600-849AD <1>

Medieval Period: (850AD-1453AD)

"008b">Early Medieval 850-999AD"008c">11th Century 1000-1095AD"008d">12th Century 1150-1189AD"008e">13th Century 1211-1295AD"008f">14th Century 1312-1387AD"0090">Early 15th Century 1415-1453AD <1>

Modern Period: (1455AD-1889AD)

"0091">Late 15th Century 1455-1497AD"0092">16th Century 1501-1598AD"0093">17th Century 1600-1690AD"0094">18th Century 1701-1799AD"0095">Early 19th Century 1800-1849AD"0096">Late 19th Century 1850-1899AD <1>

Early Contemporary Period: (1900AD-1929AD)

"0097">Pre-World War I Era 1900-1913AD"0098">World War I Era 1914-1918AD"0099">Post World War I Era 1919-1929AD <1>

Mid Contemporary Period: (1922AD-1962AD)

"009a">Pre-World War II Era 1930-1938AD"009b">World War II Era 1939-1945AD"009c">Post World War II Era 1946-1962AD <1>

Recent Contemporary Period: (1963-2001AD)

"009d">Vietnam War Era 1963-1973AD"009e">Modern Contemporary Period <1>

Wars and Conflicts

"009f">The Crusades (1095-1291)"0078">American Revolution (1756-1791)"00a0">French Revolution (1789-1799)"00a1">Napoleon's Wars (1797-1815)"0079">War of 1812 (1812-1815)"007b">U.S. Civil War (1860-1865)"00a2">Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)"007c">Spanish American War (1898-1899)"007d">World War I (1914-1918)"007e">World War II (1939-1945)"007f">Korean War (1950-1953)"0080">Vietnam War (1950-1976)"0081">Persian Gulf War (1990-1991) <1>

Famous People

"00a3">Explorers & Adventurers"00a4">Government & World Leaders"00a5">Inventors"00a6">Literary Writers"00a7">Military Figures"00a8">Musicians"00a9">Philosophers"00aa">Poets"00ab">Religious Figures"00ac">Scientists"00ad">Visual Artists"00ae">Miscellaneous Famous People Math Contents

"00af"

"000b">Math Terms & Definitions

Basic Math

"00b0">Basic Math Terms and Definitions"00b1">Computing Cube Roots"00b2">Computing Interest "00b3">Computing Square Roots"00b4">Cubing Numbers"00b5">Decimals and Percents"00b6">Fractions"00b7">Mixed Numbers"00b8">Numbers and Scientific Notation"00b9">Numbers with Signs"00ba">Raising Numbers to Powers"00bb">Rounding"00bc">Squaring Numbers"00bd">Basic Math Symbols

Algebra

"00be">Algebra Terms and Definitions"00bf">Fundamental Algebra Laws"00c0">Basic Algebraic Operations"00c1">Postulates and Properties

Geometry

Circles"00c2">Terms and Definitions"00c3">Theorems and Corollaries Coordinate Geometry"00c4">Terms and Definitions"00c5">Theorems and Corollaries Inequalities"00c6">Postulates"00c7">Theorems Points, Lines, Angles, Planes and Space"00c8">Terms and Definitions"00c9">Theorems"00ca">Postulates Polygons"00cb">Terms and Definitions"00cc">Postulates"00cd">Theorems and Corollaries Ratios"00ce">Terms and Definitions"00cf">Theorems"00d0">Properties Reasoning, Proof, and Defined/Undefined Terms"00d1">Terms and Definitions"00d2">Basic Principles"00d3">Postulates Solids"00d4">Terms and Definitions"00d5">Postulates "00d6">Theorems 1"00d7">Theorems 2 Transformations"00d8">Terms and Definitions"00d9">Basic Properties Triangles"00da">Terms and Definitions"00db">Postulates"00dc">Theorems and Corollaries

Additional Math Links "0010">Conversions / Weights and Measures"00dd">Decimal Equivalents of Common Fractions"00de">Fraction/ Decimal / Percent Conversions"00df">Multiplication Table"00e0">Periods of Calendar Time"00e1">Place Value Chart"00e2">Prefixes and Multiples"00e3">Prime Numbers (1 to 1,000)"00e4">Properties of Integers"00e5">Types of Decimals"00e6">Types of Fractions Terms and Definitions

"00be">Algebra

"00b0">Basic Math

"00c2">Geometry: Circles

"00c4">Geometry: Coordinate Geometry

"00c8">Geometry: Points, Lines, Angles, Planes and Space

"00cb">Geometry: Polygons

"00ce">Geometry: Ratios

"00d1">Geometry: Reasoning, Proof and Defined/Undefined Terms

"00d4">Geometry: Solids

"00d8">Geometry: Transformations

"00da">Geometry: Triangles

Basic Math Contents

"00af"

"00b0">Basic Math Terms and Definitions"00b1">Computing Cube Roots"00b2">Computing Interest"00b3">Computing Square Roots"00b4">Cubing Numbers"00b5">Decimals and Percents"00b6">Fractions"00b7">Mixed Numbers"00b8">Numbers and Scientific Notation"00b9">Numbers with Signs"00ba">Raising Numbers to Powers"00bb">Rounding"00bc">Squaring Numbers"00bd">Basic Math Symbols Algebra Contents

"00af"

Algebra

"00be">Algebra Terms and Definitions"00bf">Fundamental Algebra Laws"00c0">Basic Algebraic Operations"00c1">Postulates and Properties Geometry Contents

"00af"

Circles

"00c2">Terms and Definitions"00c3">Theorems and Corollaries"00e7">Arcs and Central Angles"00e8">Arcs and Inscribed Angles"00e9">Angles made by Tangents, Secants or Chords"00ea">Tangent Segments, Secant Segments and Chords"00eb">Arcs and Chords"00ec">Area, Arc Lengths and Circumference"00ed">Inequalities in Circles <1>

Coordinate Geometry

"00c4">Terms and Definitions"00c5">Theorems and Corollaries <1>

Inequalities

"00c6">Postulates"00c7">Theorems <1>

Points, Lines, Angles, Planes and Space

"00c8">Terms and Definitions"00c9">Theorems"00ee">Points and Lines"00ef">Points, Lines and Planes"00f0">Angles"00f1">Angles and Transversals"00f2">Congruences "00ca">Postulates"00f3">Points and Lines"00f4">Points, Lines and Planes"00f5">Space"00f6">Angles <1>

Polygons

"00cb">Terms and Definitions"00cc">Postulates"00cd">Theorems and Corollaries"00f7">Parallelograms"00f8">Trapezoids"00f9">Rhombuses"00fa">Squares"00fb">Rectangles <1>

Ratios

"00ce">Terms and Definitions"00cf">Theorems"00d0">Properties"00fc">Means-Extremes Property, or Cross-Products Property"00fd">Means or Extremes Switching Property"00fe">Upside-Down Property"00ff">Denominator Addition Property"0100">Denominator Subtraction Property <1>

Reasoning, Proof, and Defined/Undefined Terms

"00d1">Terms and Definitions"00d2">Basic Principles"00d3">Postulates <1>

Solids

"00d4">Terms and Definitions"00d5">Postulates "00d6">Theorems 1"00d7">Theorems 2 <1>

Transformations

"00d8">Terms and Definitions"00d9">Basic Properties <1>

Triangles

"00da">Terms and Definitions"00db">Postulates"00dc">Theorems and Corollaries"0101">Angles and Triangles"0102">Applications of Congruent Triangles"0103">Areas of Triangles"0104">Congruent Triangles"0105">Inequalities in Triangles"0106">Isosceles and Equilateral Triangles"0107">Lines and Triangles"0108">Right Triangles"0109">Similar Triangles"010a">Trigonometric Formulas Misc. Math Contents

"00af"

"00dd">Decimal Equivalents of Common Fractions<1><1>"00de">Fraction/ Decimal / Percent Conversions<1><1>"00df">Multiplication Table<1><1>"00e0">Periods of Calendar Time<1><1>"00e2">Prefixes and Multiples<1><1>"00e3">Prime Numbers (1 to 1,000)<1><1>"00e4">Properties of Integers<1><1>"00e5">Types of Decimals<1><1>"00e6">Types of Fractions "010b">Complex Fraction"010c">Improper Fraction"010d">Integer Represented as a Fraction"010e">Mixed Number"010f">Proper Fraction"0110">Reciprocal"0111">Simple Fraction"0112">Unit Fraction <1>"0010">Conversions / Weights and Measures<1><1>"0113">Conversion Factors<1><1>Weights and Measures (grouped below by type) "0114">Ancient Measures"0115">Apothecaries' Weights"0116">Avoirdupois Weights"0117">Circular Measures"0118">Cubic Measures"0119">Dry Measures"011a">Linear Measures"011b">Liquid Measures"011c">Metric Weights"011d">Nautical Measures"011e">Paper Measures"011f">Surface Measures"0120">Time Measures"0121">Troy Weights Conversion Factors/ Weights and Measures

"0113">Conversion Factors (used to change units. Also includes conversion calculator.)

Unit Equivalences (grouped below by type)

"0114">Ancient Measures

"0115">Apothecaries' Weights

"0116">Avoirdupois Weights

"0117">Circular Measures

"0118">Cubic Measures

"0119">Dry Measures

"011a">Linear Measures

"011b">Liquid Measures

"011c">Metric Weights

"011d">Nautical Measures

"011e">Paper Measures

"011f">Surface Measures

"0120">Time Measures

"0121">Troy Weights

Science "0012">Astronomy <1><1>"0013">Chemistry <1><1>"0014">Physics <1><1>"0015">Geology and Biology Astronomy Contents

"0122"

<1>"0123">Planets of our Solar System <1><1>"0124">Basic Facts about the Sun <1><1>"0125">Top 10 Closest Stars <1><1>"0126">Measuring Star Size <1><1>"0127">Measuring Star Brightness <1><1>"0128">28 Brightest Stars <1><1>"0129">Star Colors- What They Mean <1><1>"012a">When Planets are Visible <1><1>"012b">Largest Bodies in our Solar System <1><1>"012c">Top 10 Asteroids <1><1>"012d">Table of Astronomical Constants <1><1>"012e">The Constellations <1><1>"012f">Frequent Comets <1><1>"0130">Closest Comet Approaches to Earth <1><1>"0131">Phases of the Moon <1><1>"0132">Ocean Tides <1><1>"0133">The Science of Space Chemistry Contents

"0122"

"0134">Chemistry Terms and Definitions<1><1>"0135">Chemistry Numbers and Math "0136">Scientific notation"0137">Temperature conversions"0138">Fahrenheit toCelsius"0139">Celsius to Fahrenheit"013a">Celsius to Kelvin"013b">Kelvin to Celsius "013c">Proportionality"013d">Direct Proportion"013e">Inverse Proportion <1>"013f">Chemistry Units and Measures "0140">Dimensions, Units, and Symbols"0141">Metric prefixes"0142">Pressure"0143">Density"0144">Temperature"0145">Energy"0146">Heat"0147">Concentration "0148">Periodic Table of Elements<1><1>"0149">States of Matter "014a">Solids"014b">Liquids"014c">Gases"014d">Triple Point of Materials <1>"014e">Gases and the Gas Laws "014f">Gas definition"0150">Avogadro's law"0151">Boyle's law"0152">Charles's law"0153">Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures"0154">General Gas law"0155">Graham's Law of Effusion"0156">Ideal Gas law Physics Contents

"0122"

"0157">Terms and Definitions<1><1>"0158">Common Physics Laws, Principles, and Theories "0159">Laws"015a">Boyle's Law"015b">Charles' Law"015c">Combined Gas Law"015d">Conservation Laws"015e">Coulomb's Law"015f">First Law of Thermodynamics"0160">Law of Electromagnetic Energy"0161">Law of Electrostatic Interaction"0162">Law of Gravity"0163">Law of Heat Exchange"0164">Law of Magnets"0165">Law of Reflection"0166">Hook's Law"0167">Inverse-Square Law"0168">Joule's Law"0169">Newton's Law of Motion"016a">Newton's Second Law (Rational Motion)"016b">Ohm's Law"016c">Second Law of Thermodynamics"016d">Snell's Law "016e">Principles"016f">Archimedes' Principle"0170">Bernoulli's Principle"0171">Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle"0172">Huygen's Principle"0173">Pascal's Principle"0174">Pauli's Exclusion Principle"0175">Principle of Conservation of Energy "0176">Theories"0177">Kinetic Theory"0178">Maxwell's Theory"0179">Quantum Theory <1>"017a">Common Physics Formulas<1><1>"017b">Physics Symbols Science Contents

"0122"

Geological Time Scale

"017c">Archeon Eon: 4,600 Million Years Ago"017d">Proterzoic Eon: 2,500 Million Years Ago"017e">Phanerozoic Eon: 570 Million Years Ago "017f">Paleozoic Era: 570 Million Years Ago"0180">Mesozoic Era: 235 Million Years Ago"0181">Cenozoic Era: 65 Million Years Ago"0182">Tertiary Period: 65 Million Years Ago"0183">Quaternary Period: 1.8 Million Years Ago

Human Body

"0184">Cell Mitosis"0185">Systems of the Human Body"0186">Circulatory System"0187">Digestive System"0188">Endocrine System"0189">Muscle System"018a">Nervous System"018b">Reproductive System (female)"018c">Reproductive System (male)"018d">Respiratory System"018e">Skeletal System"018f">Urinary System <1>"0190">Classification of Living Things<1><1>"0191">Classification of Plants<1><1> U.S. Government Contents

"0192"

"0193">Bill of Rights<1><1>"0194">Branches of Government<1><1>"0195">Electoral College<1><1>"0196">Federal Office Requirements<1><1>"0197">Government Departments (with web sites) "0198">Department of Agriculture"0199">Department of Commerce"019a">Department of Defense"019b">Department of Education"019c">Department of Energy"019d">Department of Health and Human Services"019e">Department of the Interior"019f">Department of Justice"01a0">Department of Transportation"01a1">Department of the Treasury"01a2">Environmental Protection Agency"01a3">Federal Communications Commission"01a4">National Aeronautics and Space Administration"01a5">National Endowment for the Arts"01a6">National Endowment for the Humanities"01a7">National Science Foundation"01a8">United States Congress"01a9">United States House of Representatives "01aa">United States Senate"01ab">The White House <1>"01ac">How a Bill Becomes a Law<1><1>"01ad">Preamble to the Constitution<1><1>"01ae">Presidents of the United States<1><1>"01af">Presidential Assassinations<1><1>"01b0">Presidential Cabinet Members<1><1>"01b1">Presidential Succession Order<1> Content Guide

"0003"

"0004">Help Guide <1><1>"0005">Computer Basics <1><1>"0006">English <1><1>"0007">Geography <1><1>"0008">History- American <1><1>"0009">History- World <1><1>"000a">Mathematics "000b">Terms & Definitions"000c">Basic Math"000d">Algebra"000e">Geometry"000f">Additional Math Links"0010">Conversion Factors <1>"0011">Science "0012">Astronomy"0013">Chemistry"0014">Physics"0015">Geology and Biology <1>"0016">U.S. Government

dummy file

Credits <1><1><1><1><1><1><1>

Pocket Professor, KwikNotes, Vol. 1

CONCEPT<1>AND<1>EXECUTIVE PROJECT<1>MANAGEMENT<1>Peter R. Suarez

PRODUCER<1>Jo Ann Holferty

TECHNICAL DESIGN<1>PROGRAMMING<1>Bret Timmins<1>Sean Igo

ASSISTANT<1>PROJECT COORDINATION<1>Lisa Antoinette Quillman

ARTWORK<1>Dan Whittington<1>Gregory Alden Davis (Animation,<1>Illustrations, Box Art)<1>Newton H. Ewell (Illustrations)<1>IMAGE Art & Design, L.L.C.

ADDITIONAL ARTISTS<1>Sean Igo<1>Lisa Quillman<1>Dan Whittington

DATA ENTRY<1>Chauntel H. Bolen (World Geography)<1>Joe Buffington (Assistant)<1>Julia James (Proofreading)<1>Shaun Lawton (Assistant)

CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS<1>Andrew Keefer (Computer Basics)<1>Julia James - MA in Linguistics<1>(English)<1>Michael Seipp (Chemistry)<1>Susan Seipp (English)<1>Dr. Sean Sather-Wagstaff<1>(Mathematics)<1>Aaron Schrader (History)<1>Peter R. Suarez (Government,<1>Geography, Physics, Science)

MARKETING<1>PUBLIC RELATIONS<1>Angela S. Bailey<1>David Bernert<1>3 Amigos,<1>Public Relations and Marketing

WEB DESIGN/WEB SUPPORT<1>Stephanie Miles<1>Marcia Wendorf<1>Dan Whittington,<1>IMAGE Art & Design, L.L.C.

SPECIAL THANKS<1>Robert O. Dalton, M.A.,<1>English<1>Julia James, Master of Art Linguistics<1>Scott Worthington, Legal Council &<1>Constant Friend<1>Dale Niederhauser, PhD<1>(Assistant Professor, Curriculum<1>and Instructions Technology,<1>Iowa State University)<1>Kory Mortensen, short form<1>video tape and excitement<1>John Heinlein, Accounting

TO OUR PARTNERS, SPOUSES,<1>CHILDREN AND RELATIVES<1>(you know who you are!),<1>for their support and encouragement,<1>WE THANK YOU!

DEDICATION<1>To our Grandchildren,<1>Serena, Freya, Anthony, Samuel,<1>Cooper, Ava<1>"May Our Efforts Assist You<1>In Your Education"<1>Pete and Jo Ann

Pocket Direct L.L.C.,<1>Nintendo Licensee<1>POCKET PROFESSOR, INC.<1>Nintendo Developer

BOARD OF DIRECTORS<1>CHAIRMAN<1>PETER R. SUAREZ<1>MEMBERS<1>JO ANN HOLFERTY<1>SEAN IGO<1>DR. DALE NIEDERHAUSER<1>DAVID GREBOW

X@1303303303302"#033"332"#32"#030"0303"3302"#302"#030"03"033"332"#32"#32"#32"#32"#32"#32"#32"#33"33"131"1312"#1312"#313"331"132"#132"#33"3312"#13133313313333333333330333033333333333Terms and Definitions- Page 1 (A-E)

"01b2">To glossary page 2 (F-Z)

"01b3">3D graphics

"01b4">Accelerated Graphics Port

"01b5">Access Time

"01b6">Active Matrix/ Passive Matrix

"01b7">Adapter or Expansion Card

"01b8">Adder, Half-adder, Full-adder

"01b9">Address Line

"01ba">Analog/ Digital

"01bb">Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)

"01bc">Application

"01bd">Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

"01be">ASCII

"01bf">AVI

"01c0">Backbone

"01c1">Bandwidth

"01c2">Binary

"01c3">BIOS (Basic Input/ Output System)

"01c4">Bitmap

"01c5">Boolean Logic/ Operations

"01c6">Boot or Boot-up

"01c7">Bridge

"01c8">Browser

"01c9">Bug

"01ca">Bus

"01cb">Cable

"01cc">Cache

"01cd">Capacitance

"01ce">Capacitor

"01cf">CD-Recordable, CD-R

"01d0">Circuit, Circuit Board

"01d1">Client

"01d2">Clock

"01d3">Cluster

"01d4">CMOS Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor

"01d5">Compiler

"01d6">Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC)

"01d7">Compression

"01d8">Contact

"01d9">Cookie

"01da">Couple-Charged Devices

"01db">CPU Central Processing Unit

"01dc">CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)

"01dd">Data Line

"01de">Data Transfer Rate

"01df">Defragging

"01e0">Dialog Box

"01e1">Digital-to-Analog Converter

"01e2">Directory

"01e3">Domain

"01e4">Dot Pitch

"01e5">Drain

"01e6">Drive

"01e7">Drive Array

"01e8">DVD

"01e9">Email/ Electronic Mail

"01ea">Expansion Slot

"01b2">To terms and defintions page 2 (F-Z)

What's Inside Your Computer

When you open your computer and look inside you might find yourself a little intimidated. There are wires and cables running all over the place; flat metal boxes that sometimes make grinding noises. If you don't know what these parts are and what they do, being a little (or a lot) intimidated is normal. But it's not as complicated as it looks.

Click on the links below for descriptions.

"01eb">AGP Expansion Slot

"01ec">BIOS

"01ed">Case

"01ee">CD-ROM Drive

"01ef">CD-ROM/ DVD Drive

"01f0">CMOS

"01f1">CMOS Battery

"01f2">Fan

"01f3">Floppy Drive

"01f4">Hard Drive

"01f5">Heat Sink

"01f6">IDE Controllers

"01f7">Keyboard Port

"01f8">Microprocessor

"01f9">Modem

"01fa">Motherboard

"01fb">Mouse Port

"01fc">Parallel Ports

"01fd">PCI Expansion Slot

"01fe">Power Supply

"01ff">Real-Time Clock

"0200">Removable Drive

"0201">Sound Card

"0202">Sound Card Connections

"0203">Tape Drive

"0204">USB Ports

"0205">Video Card

How Circuit Boards Work

Among all the pieces of equipment inside your computer there are several hard, green boards. These are called "01d0">circuit boards. The different boards may have different functions, but they are all basically the same.

Electronic Highways:<1>What a circuit board does is move electricity around and connects it with other pieces of equipment; things like your hard drive, floppy drive and your sound and video cards. If you look at any circuit board in your computer, you'll notice what looks like lines of silver paint. These are actually tracings of metal that electricity uses as roadways to get from your microprocessor to other parts of the board. The traces can't touch each other or the electrical signals get mixed up, so circuit boards are made of two or three layers sandwiched together. In this way, traces that need to be in the same area can run above and below each other without touching.

Connectors:<1>The metallic traces usually end up as some sort of connection. There are pin connectors (for ribbon cables coming from hard/floppy/optical drives), edge connectors (expansion boards have these so they can attach to other circuit boards) and sockets (where upgradable and replaceable chips are placed). Some traces will attach to dip switches or jumpers. These are used to connect traces, which reorganizes how the circuit board handles data.<1><1>Scattered across the circuit boards are also resistors and capacitors. These help stabilize the flow of current and help remove static and electrical surges.

Mother Boards:<1>The main circuit board, and usually the largest, is called the Mother Board. Everything that goes on in your computer gets started here. The Mother Board is where the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and other important processing units, are located. Expansion slots on the Mother Board allows other circuit boards to be plugged into it, enhancing your computer's memory and operation.

Other Circuit Boards: <1>Some common circuit boards include sound cards, video cards, more memory, and just about any other expansion cards. The drives found inside and attached to your computer also have circuit boards, but they are usually hidden (and protected) inside the drive or other piece of equipment.

Turn on the Power

When you turn your computer's power switch to on, you'll notice that it isn't instantly ready to use. Before your computer is ready to process information, it tests itself to be sure it's working properly, and loads software that allows the hardware to talk to the applications on your PC. The self-test is known as the POST (power-on self-test) and the second half is known as the Boot-up.

"0206">POST (power-on self-test) - step by step

"001f">Your Operating System

Your Operating System

An operating system is the software that glues everything together. The operating system provides a common way of displaying information, of printing it and storing it. Without an operating system, every time a programmer wrote a program he'd have to re-invent the way it looked, printed and was saved. So programs like Windows 98 and OS/2 were created to serve as a common platform. We don't have the space to cover everything the operating system does--especially when you consider it's really the operating system, BIOS and specific device drivers that make everything work--but we'll get an overview of the basic functions.

"0207">Drivers

"0208">Interrupts

Software Basics

"0209">Programming Languages

"020a">Building Software

"020b">Software Applications

Microchips

How Transistors Work "020c">What a Transistor is"020d">On or Off, True or False"020e">Binary Numbers"020f">16, 32, and More Bits"0210">Logic Gates (half and full adders)"0211">Switches

Microprocessors

"0212">Two Brains"0213">Throwing Switches"0214">Coprocessors"0215">Pentium Processors RAM

How RAM works

When a computer sends data to RAM, a tiny burst of electricity is sent along a microscopic strand of conductive material thats been etched onto a RAM chip. The pulse goes along the address line, turning transistors off or on to send a small burst of electricity into a capacitor (a small storage unit). The combination of the open and closed transistors and capacitors represents binary code. For example, a capital A in the ASCII standard is represented by the binary number 01000001. The first capacitor has no electrical charge, the second is charged, the next five contain no charge and the eight and final capacitor has no charge. The computer sees this as 01000001 and knows to display a capital A on the monitor.

To read the data in RAM another electrical pulse is sent along the address line. Your computers software remembers which capacitors should have electrical charges and which shouldnt. It interprets these as an address and when it finds the right address for the requested data it reads and displays (or processes it in some other required way) the information.

Types of RAM

Different kinds of RAM chips have been developed to make memory faster, smaller and which are better at avoiding errors. Here are some of the types of RAM available:

"0216">DRAM <1><1>"0217">EDO RAM <1><1>"0218">VRAM <1><1>"0219">SRAM <1><1>"021a">SDRAM <1><1>"021b">SIMM <1><1>"021c">DIMM <1><1>"021d">ECC Disk Storage

Software applications get larger and more complex as new features are added. Video, sound, 3D, and other multimedia applications are commonly used and the files that contain them are very large. So, what do you do when you're not using it at the moment? How to store data and software has always been a concern for computer engineers and users.

"021e">Old Fashioned Storage

"021f">New (er) Storage

"0220">Hard Drives

"0221">Floppy Drives

Input/ Output Devices

Try this: Turn off your computer's monitor, disconnect the mouse, modem, keyboard, scanner, printer, camera and anything else connected to your computer. Now, sit down in front of the metal box and try to get the computer to do something. If, by some miracle, something actually happens, try to use the new data. Frustrating.

Input and Output Devices let us communicate with our computers and lets them communicate with us. The three most common devices are the monitor (output), the keyboard (input) and mouse (input). New way of getting data into and out of our computers are being developed all the time, and are getting faster all the time. Instead of the slow, clunky input systems, we will some day be able to simply tell our computer what to do and it'll get done.

"0222">Computer Displays

"0223">Computer Ports

"0224">Game Controllers

"0225">Keyboards

"0226">Modems

"0227">Pointing Devices

"0228">Scanners and Optical Character Recognition

"0229">Turning Energy into Data

Multimedia

Today's computers have to deal with sound, graphics and video, and this is known as multimedia. The file sizes associated with multimedia are quite large and have to be processed quickly to be properly displayed.

"022a">CD-ROM and DVD

"022b">Multimedia Sound

"022c">Multimedia Video

The Internet

Why there is an Internet

In the late 1950's the Cold War between the U.S. and the Soviet Union was bad. Really Bad. The Russians got into space before the U.S. did, and the U.S. had its faith in its own technological prowess shaken. NASA became responsible for catching up to the Russians in space, and an organization called the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) began looking into the vulnerability of the U.S. communications. They thought the military needed a distributed network that would continue to function if parts of it were damaged by rerouting the communications through lines and computers that still worked. The military never built it, but some major universities were interested in it and help develop the ARPAnet.

It has grown ever since, but not until the last decade or so has its growth literally exploded over the entire planet. Every year its growth has accelerated and there's no end in sight.

What's a Network

A computer network is two or more computers linked together in a way that allows them to share information, share programs or send messages among themselves. The internet is just a world-wide collection of LANs and WANs comprised of literally millions of computers of all sizes and capabilities.

"022d">LANs

"022e">WANs

"022f">Servers

"0230">Connecting to the Internet

"0231">ISPs

"0232">URLs

"0233">Domain Names

"0234">Sending Email

"0235">Internet Audio and Video

Legal Notice

Pentium, Pentium Pro, Celeron, and Xeon are registered trademarks of Intel Corporation.

Windows, Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows 3.1, and MS-DOS are trademarks or registered trademarks of Microsoft.

OS/2 is a registered trademark of IBM Corporation.

The names of actual companies and products mentioned herein may be the trademarks of their respective owners.

X@睽S330330332" 1"#32"""#32"" !" "#32"" "" "#32"!"#32"""#32"!"#32"""#32"!"#32"""#32"!"#32"""#32"!"#32"""#32"!"#32"""#32"!"#32"""#32"!"#32"""#32"!"#32"""#32"!"#32"""#32"!"#32"""#32"!"#32"""#32"!"#32"""#32"!"#32"""#32"!"#32"""#32"!"#32"""#32"!"#32"""#32"!"#32"""#32"!"#32"""#32"!"#32"""#32"!"#32"""#32"!"#32"3"30"#32"31!30"#32"31"30"#32"31!3"#32"30"#32"#32"#33Terms and Definitions

"0236">A, B

"0237">C, D

"0238">E, F, G, H

"0239">I, J, K, L

"023a">M, N, O

"023b">P, Q, R

"023c">S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z

Rules of Capitalization

"023d">Academic Degrees

"023e">Book Titles

"023f">Buildings, Streets, etc.

"0240">Days

"0241">Deities and Sacred Books

"0242">Departments of Government

"0243">Direct Quotations

"0244">Epithets

"0245">Genus

"0246">Geographic Locations

"0247">Geological Eras

"0248">Historical Events

"0249">Judicial Bodies

"024a">Languages

"024b">Laws, Acts, and Treaties

"024c">Personifications

"024d">Planets, Stars, etc.

"024e">Poems

"024f">Points of a Compass

"0250">Political Entities

"0251">Popular Names

"0252">Presidents

"0253">Proper Names

"0254">Proper Noun Derivatives

"0255">Proper Nouns

"0256">Religious Denominations

"0257">Rivers, Mountains, etc.

"0258">Salutation Close

"0259">Sentences

"025a">Titles

"025b">Trademarks

"025c">Peoples, Tribes, Races, etc.

Common Foreign Words and Phrases (page 1)

"025d">to page 2

ad absurdum [Latin]: to the point of absurdity. <1>EX: He tediously repeated the question ad absurdum. <1>"025e">Play Now!

ad hominem [Latin]: attacking an opponent's character rather than answering his argument. <1>EX: Any attempt to discuss the matter rationally was met with an ad hominem attack on my personality flaws. <1>"025e">Play Now!

ad infinitum [Latin]: to infinity. <1>EX: The road seemed to stretch ahead ad infinitum. <1>"025e">Play Now!

ad nauseam [Latin]: to a sickening degree. <1>EX: We went on one amusement park ride after another ad nauseam. <1>"025e">Play Now!

aficionado [Spanish]: an ardent devotee. <1>EX: She is a football aficionado and goes to every game. <1>"025e">Play Now!

au courant [French]: up-to-date, in style.<1>EX: He is very knowledgeable about fashion trends and his wardrobe is utterly au courant. <1>"025e">Play Now!

beau monde [French]: high society. <1>EX: Your new house would impress even the beau monde. <1>"025e">Play Now!

bona fide [Latin]: in good faith; genuine. <1>EX: He is a bona fide expert in his field. "025e">Play Now!

bon mot [French]: a witty remark or comment. <1>EX: She always begins her speeches with a bon mot. <1>"025e">Play Now!

bon vivant [French]: a person who lives luxuriously and enjoys good food and drink. <1>EX: John is quite the bon vivant and throws magnificent parties. <1>"025e">Play Now!

carpe diem [Latin]: seize the day. <1>EX: Forget about your bad morning and carpe diem! <1>"025e">Play Now!

carte blanche [French]: unrestricted power to act on one's own. <1>EX: Now that I have my own apartment I have carte blanche. <1>"025e">Play Now!

caveat emptor [Latin]: let the buyer beware. <1>EX: Caveat emptor if you are planning to shop at the outlet store. <1>"025e">Play Now!

coup de grace [French]: finishing blow. <1>EX: The academy awards were exciting but the coup de grace came when she won for best actress. <1>"025e">Play Now!

dolce vita [Italian]: sweet life. <1>EX: My holiday was one uninterrupted week of dolce vita. <1>"025e">Play Now!

ecce homo [Latin]: behold the man. <1>EX: The music video depicted a common theme, ecce homo-the solo artist at his piano. <1>"025e">Play Now!

ex cathedra [Latin]: with authority. <1>EX: My mothers opinions were ex cathedra in our household. <1>"025e">Play Now!

ex post facto [Latin]: retroactively. <1>EX: My recent pay raise was honored ex post facto. <1>"025e">Play Now!

fait accompli [French]: an accomplished fact, presumable irreversible. <1>EX: You can disagree with me but it is a fait accompli. <1>"025e">Play Now!

faux pas [French]: a social blunder. <1>EX: Embarrassed, he realized he had committed another faux pas. <1>"025e">Play Now!

glasnost [Russian]: open and frank discussion. <1>EX: Once Grandma went to bed, glasnost began around the fireplace. <1>"025e">Play Now!

hoi polloi [Greek]: the common people. <1>EX: The politician's speech was directed at the hoi polloi. <1>"025e">Play Now!

in vino veritas [Latin]: in wine there is truth. <1>EX: Because people often reveal personal secrets after they have consumed alcoholic beverages, some might say 'in vino veritas.' <1>"025e">Play Now!

ipso facto [Latin]: by the fact itself. <1>EX: A Democrat, ipso facto, cannot vote in a Republican primary. <1>"025e">Play Now!

"025d">more

Commonly Confused Words

allusion / illusion <1>Allusion is a noun that means an indirect reference: "The movie made allusions to my favorite poem." <1>Illusion is a noun that means a misconception: "The fake rock is designed to give an illusion of strength."

alternately / alternatively <1>Alternately is an adverb that means in turn; one after the other: "We alternately dove off the diving board into the pool." <1>Alternatively is an adverb that means on the other hand; one or the other:"You can choose this or, alternatively, you can choose that."

beside / besides <1>Beside is a preposition that means next to: "Stand there beside Grandpa." <1>Besides is an adverb that means also: Besides, I need you to help me cook dinner."

bimonthly / semimonthly <1>Bimonthly is an adjective that means every two months: "I brought the cookies for the bimonthly neighborhood party." <1>Bimonthly is also a noun that means a publication issued every two months: "The bimonthly magazine is very popular." <1>Semimonthly is an adjective that means happening twice a month: "We receive semimonthly paychecks on the 7th and the 22nd."

cite / site <1>Cite is a verb that means to quote as an authority or example: "I cited several eminent researchers in my study of evolution." <1>It also means to recognize formally: "The company president was cited for service to the community." <1>It can also mean to summon before a court of law: "Last year the city was cited for expenditure violations." <1>Site is a noun meaning location: "Every year they choose a new site for the meeting."

complement / compliment <1>Complement is a noun or verb that means something that completes a whole: "The red tie is a perfect complement to the suit." <1>Compliment is a noun or verb that means an expression of praise or admiration: "I received many compliments about my new hair style."

concurrent / consecutive <1>Concurrent is an adjective that means simultaneous or happening at the same time as something else: "The concurrent bombings of cities crippled the country." <1>Consecutive means successive or following one after the other: "The pitcher threw three consecutive balls in one at bat."

connote / denote <1>Connote is a verb that means to imply or suggest: "The word tropical connotes warmth and beauty." <1>Denote is a verb that means to indicate or refer to specifically: "The symbol Na denotes the element sodium."

discreet / discrete <1>Discreet is an adjective that means prudent, circumspect, or modest: "Their discreet comments about the negotiations showed courtesy." <1>Discrete is an adjective that means separate or individually distinct: "Each store in the mall operates as a discrete entity."

disinterested / uninterested <1>Disinterested is an adjective that means unbiased or impartial: "We appealed to the disinterested students to participate in the event." <1>Uninterested is an adjective that means not interested or indifferent: "They seemed uninterested in our presentation."

foreword / forward <1>Foreword is a noun that means an introductory note or preface: "In the foreword she explained her reasons for writing the book." <1>Forward is an adjective or adverb that means toward the front: "He sat in the forward section of the plane. Please step forward." <1>Forward is also a verb that means to send on: "Forward the letter to Grandmas new address."

farther / further <1>Farther is an adjective and adverb that means to or at a more distant point: "Tomorrow we will travel 100 miles farther." <1>Further is an adjective and adverb that means to or at a greater extent or degree: "We wont suggest a change until we are further along in our evaluation." <1>It can also mean in addition or moreover: They stated further that they would not change."

few / less <1>Few is an adjective that means small in number. "This nursery has few plant varieties." <1>Less is an adjective that means small in amount or degree. It is used with objects of indivisible mass: "Which glass holds less fluid?"

figuratively / literally <1>Figuratively is an adverb that means metaphorically or symbolically: "Happening upon a spider, he figuratively jumped out of his shoes." <1>Literally is an adverb that means word for word or according to the exact meaning or the words: "I translated Shakespeares play literally."

its / its <1>Its is a contraction for "it is", whereas its is the possessive form of "it": "Its a shame that we cannot talk about its potential."

principal / principle <1>Principal is a noun that means a person who holds a high position or plays an important role: "The school principal has 20 years of experience. The principals in the negotiations will meet tomorrow." <1>It also means a sum or money on which interest accrues: "The depositors were pleased with the amount of their principal." <1>Principal is also an adjective that means chief or leading: "The necessity of taking a cut in benefits was the principal reason I turned down the job offer." <1>Principle is a noun that means a rule or standard: "Unfortunately they compromised their principles."

stationary / stationery <1>Stationary is an adjective that means fixed or unmoving: "They parked the car behind the stationary barrier in the parking garage." <1>Stationery is a noun that means writing materials: "The letter was handwritten on company stationery."

English Grammar Rules "025f">Adjective <1><1>"0260">Adverb <1><1>"0261">Clause <1><1>"0262">Conjunction <1><1>"0263">Interjection <1><1>"0264">Noun <1><1>"0265">Participle <1><1>"0266">Phrase <1><1>"0267">Preposition <1><1>"0268">Pronoun <1><1>"0269">Sentence <1><1>"026a">Subject <1><1>"026b">Verb English Punctuation Rules "026c">Apostrophe ' <1><1>"026d">Brackets [ ] <1><1>"026e">Colon : <1><1>"026f">Comma , <1><1>"0270">Dash - <1><1>"0271">Ellipsis <1><1>"0272">Exclamation Point ! <1><1>"0273">Hyphen - <1><1>"0274">Parenthesis ( ) <1><1>"0275">Period . <1><1>"0276">Question Mark ? <1><1>"0277">Quotations-Single ' ' <1><1>"0278">Quotations- Double " " <1><1>"0279">Semicolon ; <1><1>"027a">Virgule / Basic Spelling Rules

"027b">Changing Word Endings

"027c">Forming Plurals

"027d">Other Spelling Rules: cede and i before e

Steps to Writing a Term Paper "027e">Choosing a Subject<1>

  • "027f">Finding Information About Topic<1>
  • "0280">Reading and Taking Notes<1>
  • "0281">Organizing Notes<1>
  • "0282">Constructing the Outline<1>
  • "0283">Writing the First Draft<1>
  • "0284">Reviewing the Draft<1>
  • "0285">Preparing the Final Copy<1>
  • "0286">Final Assembly P0Ɯ31313" " ""31""11""" " 11" """11"  """ " 11"""""11"""" "11" """11"" "11"" "11"" ""11""  "11" " ""11"" "11"""" " "11" " """ ""11" "" ""  "11""""11" """ ""11" "  "11""" "11" "" "11" " ""11" " """11" " ""11" " "11""" "11" " " "11" "  "11" "  " "11"" " "11"""11""" 11""11"" 11""  11" " 11"" 11""13""31313Pangaea: The Super-Continent

    It is believed by some scientists that 200 million years ago all the continents of the world were connected and formed a giant super continent called Pangaea.

    Because the land surface of Pangaea was not one solid piece it broke into large pieces called tectonic plates that slowly moved apart (a term called the continental drift) to form the seven continents we know today.

    "0287"

    A = North America <1>B = South America <1>C = Africa <1>D = Eurasia (Europe/ Asia) <1>E = Australia <1>White = Antarctica

    "0288"

    Asia/ Middle-Far East

    Area

    18,685,000 square miles

    Mean Elevation

    3,000 feet

    Highest Elevation

    29,028 feet (Mt. Everest, Nepal and Tibet)

    Lowest Elevation

    1,286 feet below sea level (Dead Sea, Israel)

    Highest Recorded Temperature

    127.1 degrees Fahrenheit (Jacobabad, Pakistan)

    Lowest Recorded Temperature

    -89.9 degrees Fahrenheit (Oymyakon, USSR)

    Longest River

    3,442 miles (Yenisei, Mongolia and USSR)

    Largest Lake

    25,500 square miles (Aral Sea, USSR)

    Highest Mountain

    29,028 feet (Everest)

    Highest Waterfall

    830 feet (Gersoppa, India)

    NOTE: Asia and Europe are not separate landmasses, they are divided by the Ural Mountains.

    Click here for information on the countries of "0042">Asia and the Middle and Far East

    Africa

    Area

    11,699,000 square miles

    Mean Elevation

    1,900 feet

    Highest Elevation

    19,340 feet (Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania)

    Lowest Elevation

    436 feet below sea level (Qattara Depression, Egypt)

    Highest Recorded Temperature

    136.4 degrees Fahrenheit (el Azizia, Libya)

    Lowest Recorded Temperature

    -11.4 degrees Fahrenheit (Semrir, Morocco)

    Longest River

    4,145 miles (Nile)

    Largest Lake

    26,800 square miles (Victoria)

    Highest Mountain

    19,340 feet (Kilimanjaro)

    Highest Waterfall

    3,110 feet (Tugela, Natal)

    NOTE: Africa is the world's hottest landmass, it has no cold climate.

    Click here for information on the countries of "0041">Africa

    North America

    Area

    9,420,000 square miles

    Mean Elevation

    2,000 feet

    Highest Elevation

    20,320 feet (Mt. McKinley, Alaska)

    Lowest Elevation

    282 feet below sea level (Death Valley, California)

    Highest Recorded Temperature

    137 degrees Fahrenheit (Death Valley, California)

    Lowest Recorded Temperature

    -81 degrees Fahrenheit (Snag, Yukon)

    Longest River

    3,741 miles (Mississippi-Missouri-Red Rock)

    Largest Lake

    31,000 square miles (Superior)

    Highest Mountain

    20,320 feet (McKinley, Alaska)

    Highest Waterfall

    2,425 feet (Yosemite, California)

    Click here for information about the countries of "0044">North America.

    Click here for information on the countries of "0289">Central America.

    South America

    Area

    6,860,000 square miles

    Mean Elevation

    1,800 feet

    Highest Elevation

    23,035 feet (Mt. Aconcagua, Argentina)

    Lowest Elevation

    131 feet below sea level (Salinas Grandes, Argentina)

    Highest Recorded Temperature

    120 degrees Fahrenheit (Rivadavia, Argentina)

    Lowest Recorded Temperature

    -27.4 degrees Fahrenheit (Colonia Sarmiento, Argentina)

    Longest River

    4,007 miles (Amazon)

    Largest Lake

    3,205 square miles (Titicaca, Peru)

    Highest Mountain

    23,035 feet (Aconcagua, Argentina)

    Highest Waterfall

    3,212 feet (Angel, Venezuela)

    Click here for information on the countries of "0046">South America.

    Click here for information on the countries of "0289">Central America.

    Antarctica

    Area

    5,100,000 square miles

    Mean Elevation

    6,000 feet

    Highest Elevation

    16,863 feet (Vinson Massif)

    Lowest Elevation

    Sea level

    Highest Recorded Temperature

    58.3 degrees Fahrenheit (Esperanza, Palmer Peninsula)

    Lowest Recorded Temperature

    -126.9 degrees Fahrenheit (Vostok)

    Longest River

    none

    Largest Lake

    none

    Highest Mountain

    Vinson Massif (16, 863 feet)

    Highest Waterfall

    none

    NOTE: Antarctica has no country. The U.S. and other countries have science stations there, but no nation owns the land.

    Europe

    Area

    2,085,000 square miles

    Mean Elevation

    980 feet

    Highest Elevation

    18,482 feet (Mt. El'brus, USSR)

    Lowest Elevation

    92 feet below sea level (Caspian Sea, USSR)

    Highest Recorded Temperature

    122 degrees Fahrenheit (Seville, Spain)

    Lowest Recorded Temperature

    -67 degrees Fahrenheit (Ust'Shchugor, USSR)

    Longest River

    2,293 miles (Volga, USSR)

    Largest Lake

    6,826 square miles (Ladoga, USSR)

    Highest Mountain

    18,482 feet (Mt. El'brus, USSR)

    Highest Waterfall

    2,625 feet (Utigard, Norway)

    NOTE: Asia and Europe are not separate landmasses, they are divided by the Ural Mountains.

    NOTE: Europe has no desert.

    Click here for information on the countries of "0043">Europe.

    Oceania-Australia-New Zealand

    Area

    3,450,000 square miles

    Mean Elevation

    1,000 feet

    Highest Elevation

    12,349 feet (Mt. Cook, New Zealand)

    Lowest Elevation

    39 feet below sea level (Lake Eyre, South Australia)

    Highest Recorded Temperature

    127.5 degrees Fahrenheit (Cloncurry, Queensland)

    Lowest Recorded Temperature

    -8 degrees Fahrenheit (Charlotte Pass, N.S. Wales)

    Longest River

    2,350 miles (Murray-Darling, Australia)

    Largest Lake

    3,700 square miles (Eyre, Australia)

    Highest Mountain

    12,349 feet (Cook, New Zealand)

    Highest Waterfall

    1,904 feet (Sutherland, New Zealand)

    NOTE: Australia has no volcanoes and has only one country, Australia.

    Click here for information on the countries of "0045">Australia-New Zealand-Oceania

    World Geographical Records

    Deepest Gorge: Hells Canyon, Snake River, Idaho, 7,900 feet

    Deepest Lake: Lake Baikal, USSR, 5,315 feet deep

    Deepest Ocean: Pacific Ocean, average depth 14,000 feet

    Deepest Underwater Trench: Mariana Trench, 200 miles southwest of Guam in the Pacific Ocean, 36,198 feet below the ocean surface

    Highest Lake: The highest navigable lake is Lake Titicaca in Peru, 12,506 feet above sea level

    Highest Point On Land: Mount Everest, Himalayan Mountains, Nepal-Tibet, 29,028 feet above sea level

    Highest Underwater Peak: Mount Pico of the Azores Islands, <1>7,613 feet above sea surface, <1>20,000 feet below sea surface to sea floor

    Largest Archipelago: Indonesia, 3,500 mile span of 13,000 islands

    Largest Atoll (Land Area): Christmas Island (Kiritimati since 1980), Pacific Ocean, 94 square miles

    Largest Bay: The Bay of Bengal, 839,000 square miles

    Largest Continent: Asia, <1>17,300,000 square miles

    Largest Freshwater Lake: Lake Superior, U.S.-Canada, 31,700 square miles

    Largest Gorge: Grand Canyon, Colorado River, Arizona, U.S., 277 miles long, 1-18 miles wide, 1 mile deep

    Largest Gulf: Gulf of Mexico, <1>580,000 square miles

    Largest Island: Greenland, <1>840,000 square miles

    Largest Lagoon: Lagoa dos Patos, Brazil, 158 miles long, 4,110 square miles

    Largest Ocean: Pacific Ocean, <1>64,186,300 square miles

    Largest Peninsula: Arabia, <1>1,250,000 square miles

    Largest River Basin: The Amazon, South America, basin of <1>2,720,000 square miles

    Largest Saltwater Lake: The Caspian Sea, Europe-Asia, 143,550 square miles

    Largest Sea: The South China Sea, 1,148,500 square miles

    Longest Estuary: Oh River, USSR, 550 miles up to 50 miles wide

    Longest Mountain Range: The Andes of South America, 5,000 miles

    Longest River: The Nile, Africa, <1>4,145 miles

    Lowest Lake: The Dead Sea, Israel-Jordan, surface of water <1>1,302 feet below sea level

    Lowest Point On Land: The Dead Sea, Israel-Jordan, water surface 1,302 feet below sea level

    Shortest River: The Roe, Montana, U.S., 201 feet long

    Smallest Continent: Australia <1>2,966,000 square miles

    Smallest Ocean: Arctic Ocean, <1>5,400,000 square miles

    Tallest Mountain: Mauna Kea, Hawaii, rises 33,476 feet from Pacific Ocean floor, 13,796 feet are above sea surface

    World's Highest Mountain Peaks

    (in order of greatest height)

    "028a">Everest

    "028b">K2 (Godwin Austen)

    "028c">Kanchenjunga

    "028d">Lhotse I

    "028e">Makalu I

    "028f">Cho Oyu

    "0290">Dhaulagiri

    "0291">Manaslu

    "0292">Nanga Parbat

    "0293">Annapurna I

    "0294">Gasherbrum I

    "0295">Broad Peak

    "0296">Gosainthan (Shishma Pangma)

    "0297">Gasherbrum II

    "0298">Annapurna II

    "0299">Gyachung Kang

    "029a">Disteghil Sar

    "029b">Himalchuli

    "029c">Nuptse

    "029d">Nanda Devi

    World's Highest Volcanoes

    "029e">Active

    "029f">Dormant

    "02a0">Believed Extinct

    World's Highest Waterfalls

    (in order of greatest size)

    "02a1">Angel

    "02a2">Tugela

    "02a3">Cuquenn

    "02a4">Sutherland

    "02a5">Takkakaw

    "02a6">Ribbon (Yosemite)

    "02a7">Upper Yosemite

    "02a8">Gavarnie

    "02a9">Vettisfoss

    "02aa">Widows' Tears (Yosemite)

    "02ab">Staubbach

    "02ac">Middle Cascade(Yosemite)

    "02ad">King Edward VIII

    "02ae">Gersoppa

    "02af">Kaieteur

    "02b0">Skykje

    "02b1">Kalambo

    "02b2">Fairy (Mt. Rainier Park)

    "02b3">Trummelbach

    "02b4">Aniene (Teverone)

    "02b5">Cascata delle Marmore

    "02b6">Maradalsfos

    "02b7">Feather

    "02b8">Maletsunyane

    "02b9">Bridalveil (Yosemite)

    "02ba">Multnomah

    "02bb">Voringsfos

    "02bc">Nevada (Yosemite)

    "02bd">Skjeggedal

    "02be">Marina

    "02bf">Tequendama

    "02c0">King George's

    "02c1">Illilouette (Yosemite)

    "02c2">Victoria

    "02c3">Handl

    "02c4">Lower Yosemite

    "02c5">Comet (Mt. Rainier Park)

    "02c6">Vernal (Yosemite)

    "02c7">Virginia

    "02c8">Lower Yellowstone

    World's Largest Islands

    (in order of greatest size)

    "02c9">Greenland

    "02ca">New Guinea

    "02cb">Borneo

    "02cc">Madagascar

    "02cd">Baffin

    "02ce">Sumatra

    "02cf">Honshu

    "02d0">Great Britain

    "02d1">Ellesmere

    "02d2">Victoria

    "02d3">Sulawesi (Celebes)

    "02d4">South Island

    "02d5">Java

    "02d6">North Island

    "02d7">Cuba

    "02d8">Newfoundland

    "02d9">Luzon

    "02da">Iceland

    "02db">Mindanao

    "02dc">Ireland

    "02dd">Hokkaido

    "02de">Hispaniola

    "02df">Tasmania

    "02e0">Sri Lanka (Ceylon)

    "02e1">Sakhalin (Karafuto)

    "02e2">Banks

    "02e3">Devon

    "02e4">Tierra del Fuego

    "02e5">Kyushu

    "02e6">Melville

    "02e7">Axel Heiberg

    "02e8">Southampton

    World's Longest Rivers

    (top 20 in order of greatest length)

    "02e9">Nile

    "02ea">Amazon

    "02eb">Mississippi-Missouri

    "02ec">Changjiang (Yangtze)

    "02ed">Yenisei-Angara

    "02ee">Amur-Argun

    "02ef">Ob-Irtysh

    "02f0">Plata-Parana

    "02f1">Huang He (Yellow)

    "02f2">Congo (Zaire)

    "02f3">Lena

    "02f4">MacKenzie

    "02f5">Mekong

    "02f6">Niger

    "02f7">Missouri

    "02f8">Mississippi

    "02f9">Murray-Darling

    "02fa">Volga

    "02fb">Madeira

    "02fc">Sao Francisco

    Countries of Africa

    "02fd">Algeria

    "02fe">Angola

    "02ff">Benin

    "0300">Botswana

    "0301">Burkina Faso

    "0302">Burundi

    "0303">Cameroon

    "0304">Cape Verde

    "0305">Central African Republic

    "0306">Chad

    "0307">Comoros

    "0308">Congo Republic

    "0309">Congo

    "030a">Cote d'Ivoire

    "030b">Djibouti

    "030c">Egypt

    "030d">Equatorial Guinea

    "030e">Eritrea

    "030f">Ethiopia

    "0310">Gabon

    "0311">Gambia

    "0312">Ghana

    "0313">Guinea

    "0314">Guinea-Bissau

    "0315">Kenya

    "0316">Lesotho

    "0317">Liberia

    "0318">Libya

    "0319">Madagascar

    "031a">Malawi

    "031b">Mali

    "031c">Mauritania

    "031d">Mauritius

    "031e">Morocco

    "031f">Mozambique

    "0320">Namibia

    "0321">Niger

    "0322">Nigeria

    "0323">Principe

    "0324">Rwanda

    "0325">Senegal

    "0326">Seychelles

    "0327">Sierra Leone

    "0328">Somalia

    "0329">South Africa

    "032a">Sudan

    "032b">Swaziland

    "032c">Tanzania

    "032d">Toga

    "032e">Tunisia

    "032f">Uganda

    "0330">Zambia

    "0331">Zimbabwe

    Countries of Asia/ Middle and Far East

    "0332">Afghanistan

    "0333">Armenia

    "0334">Azerbaijan

    "0335">Bahrain

    "0336">Bangladesh

    "0337">Bhutan

    "0338">Brunei Darussalam

    "0339">Burma

    "033a">Cambodia

    "033b">China

    "033c">Georgia

    "033d">India

    "033e">Indonesia

    "033f">Iran

    "0340">Iraq

    "0341">Israel

    "0342">Japan

    "0343">Jordan

    "0344">Kazakhstan

    "0345">Korea (North)

    "0346">Korea (South)

    "0347">Kuwait

    "0348">Kyrgyzstan

    "0349">Laos

    "034a">Lebanon

    "034b">Malaysia

    "034c">Maldives

    "034d">Mongolia

    "034e">Nepal

    "034f">Oman

    "0350">Pakistan

    "0351">Philippines

    "0352">Qatar

    "0353">Saudi Arabia

    "0354">Singapore

    "0355">Sri Lanka

    "0356">Syria

    "0357">Taiwan

    "0358">Tajikistan

    "0359">Thailand

    "035a">Turkey

    "035b">Turkmenistan

    "035c">United Arab Emirates

    "035d">Uzbekistan

    "035e">Vietnam

    "035f">Yemen

    Countries of Europe

    "0360">Albania

    "0361">Andorra

    "0362">Austria

    "0363">Belarus

    "0364">Belgium

    "0365">Bosnia

    "0366">Bulgaria

    "0367">Croatia

    "0368">Cyprus

    "0369">Czech Republic

    "036a">Denmark

    "036b">England

    "036c">Estonia

    "036d">Finland

    "036e">France

    "036f">Germany

    "0370">Greece

    "0371">Holland

    "0372">Hungary

    "0373">Iceland

    "0374">Ireland

    "0375">Italy

    "0376">Liechtenstein

    "0377">Lithuania

    "0378">Luxembourg

    "0379">Macedonia

    "037a">Malta

    "037b">Moldova

    "037c">Monaco

    "037d">Norway

    "037e">Poland

    "037f">Portugal

    "0380">Romania

    "0381">Russia

    "0382">San Marino

    "0383">Slovakia

    "0384">Slovenia

    "0385">Spain

    "0386">Sweden

    "0387">Switzerland

    "0388">Ukraine

    "0389">Vatican City

    "038a">Yugoslavia

    Countries of North America

    "038b">Canada

    "038c">Mexico

    "038d">United States of America

    Click here for information on the countries of "0289">Central America.

    Countries of Australia-New Zealand Oceania

    "038e">Australia

    "038f">Fiji

    "0390">Kiribati

    "0391">Marshall Islands

    "0392">Micronesia

    "0393">Nauru

    "0394">New Zealand

    "0395">Palau

    "0396">Papua New Guinea

    "0397">Samoa

    "0398">Solomon Islands

    "0399">Tonga

    "039a">Tuvalu

    "039b">Vanuatu

    Countries of South America

    "039c">Argentina

    "039d">Bolivia

    "039e">Brazil

    "039f">Chile

    "03a0">Colombia

    "03a1">Ecuador

    "03a2">Guyana

    "03a3">Paraguay

    "03a4">Peru

    "03a5">Suriname

    "03a6">Uruguay

    "03a7">Venezuela

    Africa: Explorations & Discoveries

    Sierra Leone <1>Visited: 520 B.C. by Hanno, Carthaginian Seaman

    Congo River <1>Traced: 1877 by Sir Henry M. Stanley, British explorer

    Congo River <1>Mouth discovered 1484 by Diogo Cao, Portuguese Explorer

    Cape Of Good Hope <1>Rounded: 1488 by Bartolomeu Diaz, Portuguese seaman

    Gambia River <1>Explored: 1795 by Mungo Park, Scottish explorer

    Sahara <1>Crossed: 1822-23 by Dixon Denham & Hugh Clapperton, English explorers

    Zambezi River <1>Discovered: 1851 by David Livingstone, Scottish explorer

    Sudan <1>Explored: 1852-55 by Heinrich Barth, German explorer

    Victoria Falls <1>Discovered: 1855 by David Livingstone, Scottish explorer

    Lake Tanganyika <1>Discovered: 1858 by Richard Burton & John Speke, British explorers

    Asia: Explorations & Discoveries

    Punjab (India) <1>Visited: 327 B.C. by Alexander the Great

    China <1>Explored: circa 1272 Marco Polo, Italian traveler

    Tibet <1>Visited: 1325 by Odoric of Pordenone, Italian monk

    Southern China <1>Explored: 1440 by Niccolo' dei Conti, Venetian traveler

    India <1>Visited (cape route): 1498 by Vasco da Gama, Portuguese navigator

    Japan <1>Visited: 1549 by St. Francis Xavier of Spain

    Arabia <1>Explored: 1762 by Carsten Niebuhr, German explorer

    China <1>Explored: 1868 by Ferdinand Richthofen, German scientist

    Mongolia <1>Explored: 1870-73 by Nikolai M. Przhevalsky, Russian explorer

    Central Asia <1>Explored: 1890-1908 by Sven Hedin, Swedish scientist

    Europe: Explorations & Discoveries

    Shetland Islands <1>Visited: 325 B.C. by Pytheas of Massilia (Marseille)

    North Cape <1>Rounded: 870 by Ottar, Norwegian explorer

    Iceland <1>Colonized: 890-900 by Norwegian noblemen

    North America: Explorations & Discoveries

    Greenland <1>Colonized circa 985, Eric the Red, Norwegian

    Labrador/Nova Scotia <1>Discovered: 1000 by Leif Ericson, Norse explorer

    West Indies <1>Discovered: 1492 by Christopher Columbus, Italian

    North America <1>Coast discovered: 1497 by Giovanni Caboto (John Cabot), For the British

    Pacific Ocean <1>Discovered: 1513 by Vasco Nunez de Balboa, Spanish explorer

    Florida <1>Explored: 1513 by Ponce de Leon, Spanish explorer

    Mexico <1>Conquered: 1519-21 by Hernando Cortes, Spanish adventurer

    St. Lawrence River <1>Discovered: 1534 by Jacques Cartier, French navigator

    Southwest US <1>Explored: 1540-42 by Francisco Coronado, Spanish explorer

    Colorado River <1>Discovered: 1540 by Hernando de Alarcon, Spanish explorer

    Mississippi River <1>Explored: 1541 by Hernado de Soto, Spanish Explorer

    Frobisher Bay <1>Discovered: 1576 by Martin Frobisher, English seaman

    Maine Coast <1>Explored: 1604 by Samuel de Champlain, French explorer

    Jamestown, Virginia <1>Settled: 1607 by John Smith, English colonist

    Hudson River <1>Explored: 1609 by Henry Hudson, English navigator

    Hudson Bay (Canada) <1>Discovered: 1610 by Henry Hudson, English navigator

    Baffin Bay <1>Discovered: 1616 by William Baffin, English navigator

    Lake Michigan <1>Navigated: 1634 by Jean Nicolet, French explorer

    Arkansas River <1>Discovered: 1673 by Jacques Marquette & Louis Jolliet, French explorers

    Mississippi River <1>Explored: 1682 by Sieur de La Salle, French explorer

    Bering Strait <1>Discovered: 1728 by Vitus Bering, Danish explorer

    Alaska <1>Discovered: 1741 by Vitus Bering, Danish explorer

    Mackenzie River (Canada) <1>Discovered: 1789 by Sir Alexander Mackenzie, Scottish-Canadian explorer

    Northwest U.S. <1>Explored: 1804-06 by Meriwether Lewis & William Clark, American explorers

    Northeast Passage (Arctic Ocean) <1>Navigated: 1879 by Nils Nordenskjold, Swedish explorer

    Greenland <1>Explored: 1892 by Robert Peary, American explorer

    Northwest Passage <1>Navigated: 1906 by Roald Amundsen, Norwegian explorer

    Oceania, Australia & New Zealand Explorations & Discoveries

    Papua New Guinea <1>Visited: 1526 by Jorge de Menezes, Portuguese explorer

    Tasmania <1>Discovered: 1642 by Abel Janszoon Tasman, Dutch navigator

    New Zealand <1>Sited and named: 1642 by Abel Janszoon Tasman, Dutch navigator

    New Zealand <1>Visited: 1769 by James Cook, English navigator

    Australia <1>Explored: 1861 by Robert Burke & William Wills, Australian explorers

    South America: Explorations & Discoveries

    Continent <1>Visited: 1498 by Christopher Columbus, Italian explorer

    Brazil <1>Discovered: 1500 by Pedro Alvarez Cabral, Portuguese

    Peru <1>Conquered: 1532-33 by Francisco Pizarro, Spanish explorer

    Amazon River <1>Explored: 1541 by Francisco Orellana, Spanish explorer

    Cape Horn <1>Discovered: 1615 by Willem C. Schouten, Dutch navigator

    Arctic, Antarctic & Misc.: Explorations & Discoveries

    Ocean Exploration <1>Expedition: 1519-22 by Ferdinand Magellan, Portuguese navigator

    Galapagos Islands <1>Visited: 1535 by Diego de Rivadeneira, Spanish captain

    Spitsbergen <1>Visited: 1596 by Willem Barents, Dutch navigator

    Antarctic Circle <1>Crossed: 1773 by James Cook, English navigator

    Antarctica (Archipelago) <1>Discovered: 1820-21 by Nathaniel Palmer, U.S. Whaler

    Antarctica (Mainland) <1>Discovered: 1820-21 by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen, Russian admiral

    Antarctica <1>Explored: 1840 by Charles Wilkes, American explorer

    North Pole <1>Reached: 1909 by Robert E. Peary, American explorer

    South Pole <1>Reached: 1911 by Roald Amundsen, Norwegian explorer

    US Geographic Overview

    Largest state:

    Alaska (615,230 sq. miles)

    Smallest state:

    Rhode Island (1,231 sq. miles)

    Northern most city:

    Barrow Alaska (71 17 north latitude)

    Southern most city:

    Hilo, Hawaii (19 44 north latitude)

    Eastern most city:

    Eastport, Maine (66 5905" west longitude)

    Western most city:

    Atka, Alaska (174 12 west latitude)

    Highest town:

    Climax, Colorado (11,360 feet above sea level)

    Lowest town:

    Calipatria, California (184 feet below sea level)

    Oldest National Park:

    Yellowstone National Park (Idaho, Montana, Wyoming), 2,219,791 acres, established 1872

    Largest National Park:

    Wrangell-St. Elias, Alaska (8,323,618 acres)

    Longest river system:

    Mississippi-Missouri-Red Rock (3.710 miles)

    Deepest lake:

    Crater Lake, Oregon (1,932 feet)

    Mean Elevation:

    2,500 feet

    Highest mountain:

    Mount McKinley, Alaska (20,230 feet above sea level)

    Lowest point:

    Death Valley, California (282 feet below sea level)

    Rainiest spot:

    Mount Waialeale, Hawaii (average annual rainfall-460inches)

    Tallest building:

    Sears Tower, Chicago, Illinois (1,450 feet)

    Tallest structure:

    TV tower, Blanchard, North Dakota (2,063 feet)

    Longest bridge span:

    Verranzo-Narrows Bridge, New York (4,260 feet)

    Highest bridge:

    Royal Gorge, Colorado (1,053 feet above water) U.S. State Information

    "03a8">Alabama

    "03a9">Alaska

    "03aa">Arizona

    "03ab">Arkansas

    "03ac">California

    "03ad">Colorado

    "03ae">Connecticut

    "03af">Delaware

    "03b0">Florida

    "03b1">Georgia

    "03b2">Hawaii

    "03b3">Idaho

    "03b4">Illinois

    "03b5">Indiana

    "03b6">Iowa

    "03b7">Kansas

    "03b8">Kentucky

    "03b9">Louisiana

    "03ba">Maine

    "03bb">Maryland

    "03bc">Massachusetts

    "03bd">Michigan

    "03be">Minnesota

    "03bf">Mississippi

    "03c0">Missouri

    "03c1">Montana

    "03c2">Nebraska

    "03c3">Nevada

    "03c4">New Hampshire

    "03c5">New Jersey

    "03c6">New Mexico

    "03c7">New York

    "03c8">North Carolina

    "03c9">North Dakota

    "03ca">Ohio

    "03cb">Oklahoma

    "03cc">Oregon

    "03cd">Pennsylvania

    "03ce">Rhode Island

    "03cf">South Carolina

    "03d0">South Dakota

    "03d1">Tennessee

    "03d2">Texas

    "03d3">Utah

    "03d4">Vermont

    "03d5">Virginia

    "03d6">Washington

    "03d7">West Virginia

    "03d8">Wisconsin

    "03d9">Wyoming

    Ten Largest States <2> 5>

    Name

    Size: square <1>miles/ kilometers

    Alaska

    587,878/ 1,522,596

    Texas

    266,874/ 691,201

    California

    158,648/ 410,896

    Montana

    147,047/ 380,849

    New Mexico

    121,599/ 314,939

    Arizona

    114,007/ 295,276

    Nevada

    110,567/ 286,367

    Colorado

    104,100/ 269,618

    Wyoming

    97,818/ 253,349

    Oregon

    97,052/ 251,365

    Ten Smallest States <2> 4>

    Name

    Size: square <1>miles/ kilometers

    Rhode Island

    1,213/ 3,142

    Delaware

    2,026/ 5,246

    Connecticut

    5,006/ 12,966

    Hawaii

    6,459/ 16,729

    New Jersey

    7,790/ 20,175

    Massachusetts

    8,262/ 21,398

    New Hampshire

    9,283/ 24,044

    Vermont

    9,615/ 24,903

    Maryland

    10,455/ 27,077

    West Virginia

    24,231/ 62,759 Top 50 Highest US Mountain Peaks

    Mt. McKinley, Alaska: 20,320 feet

    Mt. St. Elias, Alaska: 18,008 feet

    Mt. Foraker, Alaska: 17,400 feet

    Mt. Bona, Alaska: 16,500 feet

    Mt. Blackburn, Alaska: 16,390 feet

    Mt. Sanford, Alaska: 16,237 feet

    Mt. Vancouver, Alaska: 15,979 feet

    South Buttress, Alaska: 15,885 feet

    Mt. Churchill, Alaska: 15,638 feet

    Mt. Fairweather, Alaska: 15,300 feet

    Mt. Hubbard, Alaska: 14,950 feet

    Mt. Bear, Alaska: 14,831 feet

    East Buttress, Alaska: 14,730 feet

    Mt. Hunter, Alaska: 14,573 feet

    Browne Tower, Alaska: 14,530 feet

    Mt. Alverstone, Alaska: 14,500 feet

    Mt. Whitney, California: 14,494 feet

    University Peak, Alaska: 14,470 feet

    Mt. Elbert, Colorado: 14,433 feet

    Mt. Massive, Colorado: 14,421 feet

    Mt. Harvard, Colorado: 14,420 feet

    Mt. Rainier, Washington: 14,410 feet

    Mt. Williamson, California: 14,370 feet

    La Plata Peak, Colorado: 14,361 feet

    Blanca Peak, Colorado: 14,345 feet

    Uncompahgre Peak, Colorado: 14,309 feet

    Mt. Antero, Colorado: 14,269 feet

    Crestone Peak, Colorado: 14,294 feet

    Mt. Lincoln, Colorado: 14,286 feet

    Grays Peak, Colorado: 14,270 feet

    Torreys Peak, Colorado: 14,267 feet

    Castle Peak, Colorado: 14,265 feet

    Quandary Peak, Colorado: 14,265 feet

    Mt. Evans, Colorado: 14,264 feet

    Longs Peak, Colorado: 14,255 feet

    Mt. Wilson, Colorado: 14,246 feet

    White Mtn., California: 14,246 feet

    North Palisade, California: 14,242 feet

    Mt. Cameron, Colorado: 14,238 feet

    Mt. Shavano, Colorado: 14,229 feet

    Crestone Needle, Colorado: 14,197 feet

    Mt. Belford, Colorado: 14,197 feet

    Mt. Princeton, Colorado: 14,197 feet

    Mt. Yale, Colorado: 14,196 feet

    Mt. Bross, Colorado: 14,172 feet

    Kit Carson Mtn., Colorado: 14,165 feet

    Mt. Wrangell, Alaska: 14,163 feet

    Mt. Shasta, California: 14,162 feet

    El Diente Peak, Colorado: 14,159 feet

    Point Success, Washington: 14,158 feet

    Longest US Rivers <2> 4>

    Name

    Length: miles/ kilometers

    Mississippi

    2,348/ 3,779

    Missouri

    2,315/ 3,726

    Yukon

    1,979/ 3,186

    Rio Grande

    1,885/ 3,034

    Arkansas

    1,396/ 2,247

    Columbia

    1,210/ 1,947

    Snake

    1,083/ 1,743

    Red

    1,018/ 1,638

    Ohio

    981/ 1,579

    St. Lawrence

    760/ 1,223

    The Great Lakes

    Lake Superior <1>Area (sq. miles/ kilometers): 31,820/ 81,414 <1>Borders: Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Ontario (Canada) <1>Major Ports: US-Duluth, Superior, Sault Sainte Marie; Canada- Sault Sainte Marie, Thunder Bay

    Lake Huron <1>Area (sq. miles/ kilometers): 23,010/ 59,596 <1>Borders: Michigan, Ontario (Canada) <1>Major Ports: US- Port Huron; Canada- Sarnia

    Lake Michigan <1>Area (sq. miles/ kilometers): 22,400/ 58,016 <1>Borders: Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin <1>Major Ports: US- Milwaukee, Racine, Kenosha, Chicago, Gary, Muskegon

    Lake Erie <1>Area (sq. miles/ kilometers): 9,940/ 25,745 <1>Borders: Michigan, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Ontario (Canada) <1>Major Ports: US- Toledo, Sandusky, Lorain, Cleveland, Erie, Buffalo

    Lake Ontario <1>Area (sq. miles/ kilometers): 7,540/ 19,529 <1>Borders: New York, Ontario (Cananda) <1>Major Ports: US- Rochester, Oswego Canada- Toronto, Hamilton

    Total Area: 94,710 square miles/ 244,300 square kilometers

    Common Map Projections "03da">Conic <1><1>"03db">Interrupted <1><1>"03dc">Mercator (cylindrical) <1><1>"03dd">Polar (azimuthal) <1><1>"03de">Robinson (oval) Longitude and Latitude

    Lines of longitude (running top to bottom) and lines of latitude (running left to right) on a map or globe are the imaginary lines used to identify specific locations on the surface of the earth.

    Longitude: Lines of longitude divide the earth into 360 segments called degrees. These north/south vertical lines are called either "lines of longitude" or "meridians". In 1884 it was agreed that the line of 0 longitude (known as the Prime Meridian) would pass directly through the site of the Royal Naval Observatory at Greenwich, England. Longitude lines east of the Prime Meridian are numbered 1 through 179 and define what we call the Eastern Hemisphere. Lines of longitude numbered 1 through 179 west of the Prime Meridian define the Western Hemisphere. The 180 line of longitude (half way around the world from the Prime Meridian) is the line of longitude known as the international dateline.

    "03df"

    Latitude: In addition to the vertical lines of longitude there are lines that run horizontally (left to right). These horizontal lines are called "parallels" or "lines of latitude." Latitude is measured from the equator. The equator is 0 latitude. Horizontal lines are numbered 1 to 90 north of the equator and together define the Northern Hemisphere. Horizontal lines numbered 1 to 90 south of the equator and together define the Southern Hemisphere. <1>Note: 90 North latitude is the North Pole. <1>Note: 90 South latitude is the South Pole.

    "03e0"

    Seven Ancient Wonders of the World

    "03e1">Pyramids of Egypt

    "03e2">Hanging Gardens of Babylon

    "03e3">Tomb of Mausolus

    "03e4">Temple of Artemis at Ephesus

    "03e5">Colossus of Rhodes

    "03e6">Statue of Zeus at Olympia

    "03e7">Pharos of Alexandria

    World Water Supply

    Total water on earth <1>square miles: 147,000,000 <1>cubic miles: 326,038,400 <1>Percent of total world water: 100

    The water supply for the World comes from many sources.

    Source: Oceans <1>square miles: 139,500,000 <1>cubic miles: 317,000,000 <1>Percent of total world water: 97.25

    Source: Inland Seas/ Saline Lakes <1>square miles: 270,000 <1>cubic miles: 25,000 <1>Percent of total world water: .008

    Source: Freshwater lakes <1>square miles: 330,000 <1>cubic miles: 30,000 <1>Percent of total world water: .009

    Source: All rivers <1>square miles: N/A <1>cubic miles: 300 <1>Percent of total world water: .0001

    Source: Antarctic Icecap <1>square miles: 6,000,000 <1>cubic miles: 6,300,000 <1>Percent of total world water: 1.9

    Source: Arctic Icecap & Glaciers <1>square miles: 900,000 <1>cubic miles: 680,000 <1>Percent of total world water: .21

    Source: Water in Atmosphere <1>square miles: 197,000,000 <1>cubic miles: 3,100 <1>Percent of total world water: .001

    Source: Ground Water (within 1/2 mile of surface) <1>square miles: N/A <1>cubic miles: 1,000,000 <1>Percent of total world water: .31

    Source: Deep-Lying Ground Water <1>square miles: N/A <1>cubic miles: 1,000,000 <1>Percent of total world water: .31

    Oceans of the World

    "0032"

    "03e8">Pacific Ocean <1><1>"03e9">Atlantic Ocean <1><1>"03ea">Indian Ocean <1><1>"03eb">Arctic Ocean <1><1>"03ec">Mediterranean Sea <1><1>"03ed">Caribbean Sea <1><1>"03ee">South China Sea <1><1>"03ef">Bering Sea <1><1>"03f0">Gulf of Mexico <1><1>"03f1">Okhotsk Sea <1><1>"03f2">East China Sea <1><1>"03f3">Hudson Bay <1><1>"03f4">Japan Sea <1><1>"03f5">Andaman Sea <1><1>"03f6">North Sea <1><1>"03f7">Red Sea <1><1>"03f8">Baltic Sea World Deserts <2> 1>

    Desert/ <1>Location

    Size: square<1>miles/ kilometers

    Sahara <1>North Africa

    3,500,000 <1>9,065,000

    Gobi <1>Mongolia, China

    500,000 <1>1,295,000

    Libyan <1>Libya, Southwest Egypt, Sudan

    450,000 <1>1,165,500

    Rub al-Khali ("Empty Quarter") <1>South Saudi Arabia

    250,000 <1>647,500

    Kalahari <1>South Africa

    225,000 <1>582,800

    Chihuahuan <1>Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Mexico

    140,000 <1>362,600

    Taklimakan <1>Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, China

    140,000 <1>362,600

    Great Sandy <1>NW Australia

    150,000<1>338,500

    Great Victoria <1>SW Australia

    150,000<1>338,500

    Gibson <1>West Australia

    120,000<1>310,800

    Kara Kum (Turkestan) <1>Turkmenistan

    120,000<1>310,800

    Kyzl Kum <1>Uzbekistan

    100,000<1>259,000

    Nubian <1>NE Sudan

    100,000<1>259,000

    Syrian <1>N Saudi Arabia, E Jordan, S Syria, W Iraq

    100,000<1>259,000

    Thar (Great Indian) <1>NW India, Pakistan

    100,000<1>259,000

    Atacama <1>N Chile

    70,000<1>181,300

    Sonoran <1>SW Arizona, SE California, NW Mexico

    70,000<1>181,300

    An Nafud <1>N Saudi Arabia

    40,000<1>103,600

    Simpson <1>Central Australia

    40,000<1>103,600

    Dasht-e-Kavir <1>Central Iran

    30,000<1>77,600

    Dasht-e-Lut <1>Eastern Iran

    20,000<1>51,800

    Mojave <1>S California, W Arizona

    15,000<1>38,900

    Negev <1>S Israel

    4,700<1>12,200

    Death Valley <1>E California, SW Nevada

    3,000<1>7,800

    Black Rock <1>NW Nevada

    1,000<1>2,600

    Namib <1>Namibia

    800<1>1,290

    Painted Desert <1>N Arizona

    200<1>320

    Major Lakes of the World

    "03f9">Caspian Sea

    "03fa">Superior

    "03fb">Victoria

    "03fc">Aral Sea (salt water lake)

    "03fd">Huron

    "03fe">Michigan

    "03ff">Tanganyika

    "0400">Baikal

    "0401">Great Bear

    "0402">Nyasa (Malawi)

    "0403">Great Slave

    "0404">Erie

    "0405">Winnipeg

    "0406">Ontario

    "0407">Balkhash

    "0408">Ladoga

    "0409">Chad

    "040a">Maracaibo

    "040b">Patos (lagoon)

    "040c">Onega

    "040d">Titicaca

    "040e">Nicaragua

    "040f">Mai-Ndombe

    "0410">Athabasca

    "0411">Eyre (salt water lake)

    "0412">Reindeer

    "0413">Tonle Sap

    "0414">Rudolf

    "0415">Issyk-Kul

    "0416">Torrens

    "0417">Albert

    "0418">Vanern

    "0419">Nettilling

    "041a">Winnipegosis

    "041b">Bangweulu

    "041c">Nipigon

    "041d">Gairdner

    "041e">Urmia

    "041f">Manitoba

    "0420">Kyoga

    "0421">Khanka

    "0422">Lake of the Woods

    "0423">Great Salt (salt water lake)

    "0424">Mweru

    "0425">Peipus

    "0426">Koko Nor (Tsing Hai)

    "0427">Dubawnt

    "0428">Tung-t'ing-Hu

    "0429">Van Golu

    "042a">Tana

    Volcanoes

    There are four types of volcanoes:

    Active: Erupting constantly

    Intermittent: Erupting at regular intervals

    Dormant: Inactive, but may become active again

    Extinct: Completely inactive for hundreds of years

    Click here for information about the "003d">World's Highest Volcanoes.

    The Richter Scale

    The Richter scale, developed by Charles Richter, is used to express the amount of energy released at the focus of an earthquake. The scale is logarithmic, and based on a numerical system of exponents.

    "042b">Table of Richter Numbers

    "042c">World's Ten Largest Earthquakes

    "042d">US Fifteen Largest Earthquakes

    Latitude and Longitude of World Cities (page 1) <2> 4>

    City/<1>Country

    Latitude/<1>Longitude

    Aberdean, Scotland

    579' N<1>29' W

    Adelaide, Australia

    3455' S<1>13836' E

    Algiers, Algeria

    3650' N<1>30' E

    Amsterdam, Netherlands

    5222' N<1>453' E

    Ankara, Turkey

    3955' N<1>3255' E

    Asuncin, Paraguay

    2515' S<1>5740' W

    Athens, Greece

    3758' N<1>2343' E

    Auckland, New Zealand

    3652' S<1>17445' E

    Bangkok, Thailand

    1345' N<1>10030' E

    Barcelona, Spain

    4123' N<1>29' E

    Beijing, China

    3955' N<1>11625' E

    Belm, Brazil

    128' S<1>4829' W

    Belfast, Northern Ireland

    5437' N<1>556' W

    Belgrade, Yugoslavia

    4452' N<1>2032' E

    Berlin, Germany

    5230' N<1>1325' E

    Birmingham, England

    5225' N<1>155 ' W

    Bogota, Columbia

    432' N<1>7415' W

    Bombay, India

    190' N<1>7248' E

    Bordeaux, France

    4450' N<1>831' W

    Bremen, Germany

    535' N<1>849' E

    Brisbane, Australia

    2729' S<1>1538' E

    Bristol, England

    5128' N<1>235' W

    Brussels, Belgium

    5052' N<1>422' E

    Bucharest, Romania

    4425' N<1>267' E

    Budapest, Hungary

    4730' N<1>195' E

    Buenos Aires, Argentina

    3435' S<1>5822' W

    Cairo, Egypt

    302' N<1>3121' E

    Calcutta, India

    2234' N<1>8824' E

    Canton, China

    237' N<1>11315' E

    Cape Town, South Africa

    3355' S<1>1822' E

    Caracas, Venezuela

    1028' N<1>672' W

    Cayenne, French Guiana

    449' N<1>5218' W

    Chihuahua, Mexico

    2837' N<1>1065' W

    Chongqing, China

    2946' N<1>10634' E

    Copenhagen, Denmark

    5540' N<1>1234' E

    Crdoba, Argentina

    3128' S<1>6410' W

    Daker, Senegal

    1440' N<1>1728' W

    Darwin, Australia

    1228' S<1>13051' E

    Dijbouti, Dijbouti

    1130' N<1>433' E

    Dublin, Ireland

    5320' N<1>615' W

    Durban, South Africa

    2953' S<1>3053' E

    Edinburgh, Scotland

    5555' N<1>310' W

    Frankfurt, Germany

    507' N<1>841' E

    Georgetown, Guyana

    645' N<1>5815' W

    Glasgow, Scotland

    5550' N<1>415' W

    Guatemala City, Guatemala

    1437' N<1>9031' W

    Guayaquil, Ecuador

    210' S<1>7956' W

    Hamburg, Germany

    5333' N<1>102' E

    Hammerfest, Norway

    7038' N<1>2338' E

    Havana, Cuba

    238' N<1>8223' W

    Helsinki, Finland

    6010' N<1>250' E

    Hobart, Tasmania

    4252' S<1>14719' E

    Iquique, Chile

    2010' S<1>707' W

    Irkutsk, Russia

    5230' N<1>10420' E

    Jakarta, Indonesia

    616' S<1>10648' E

    Johannesburg, South Africa

    2612' S<1>284' E

    Kingston, Jamaica

    1759' N<1>7649' W

    Kinshasa, Congo

    418' S<1>1517' E

    La Paz, Bolivia

    1627' S<1>6822' W

    Leeds, England

    5345' N<1>130' W

    Lima, Peru

    120' S<1>772' W

    Lisbon, Portugal

    3844' N<1>99' W

    Liverpool, England

    5325' N<1>30' W

    London, England

    5132' N<1>05' W

    Lyons, France

    4545' N<1>450' E

    Madrid, Spain

    4026' N<1>342' W

    Manchester, England

    5330' N<1>215' W

    Manila, Philippines

    1435' N<1>12057' E

    Marseilles, France

    4320' N<1>520' E

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    "042e">to Latitude and Longitude of World Cities page 2

    X@"3"3" """ " """3" " 3" """ " """2"#" " """ """0#" " "0#" " "0#" " " "" " ""33" """ " """3" " "3" """ " """0#3" " """ " ""0#" " """ " ""33"  "0" " " " " " ""0#0" """ " """33" " "1" """ " """331" """ " """0#1" " """ " ""33"  "330" " """ " ""0" """ " """0#0"" "" "0#" "  "0#" """ " """33" " " "" " ""1" ""0" " " "" " ""0"0"01111330#0#0#01330#1330#03300330#11330#30#333330#30#30#32"#333Exploration/Settlement:1492-1654

    1492- Christopher Columbus sights land in the present day Bahamas.

    1497- John Cabot explores the northeast coast to Delaware.

    1513- Juan Ponce de Leon explores the coast of Florida.

    1524- Giovanni da Verrazano leads a French expedition into present day New York Harbor.

    1539- Hernando de Soto lands in Florida and crosses the Mississippi River in 1541.

    1540- Francisco Vazquez de Coronado explores the southwest United States north of the Rio Grande.

    1565- Pedro Menendez establishes St. Augustine, Florida.

    1579- Francis Drake claims California for Britain.

    1607- Captain John Smith lands on the Virginia coast and establishes Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement in the New World.

    1609- Henry Hudson, an English explorer employed by the Dutch, sails up the Hudson River to Albany; Samuel de Champlain explores Lake Champlain; the Spanish settle Sante Fe, New Mexico.

    1619- The first representative assembly in the New World is elected at Jamestown, Virginia and is called the House of Burgesses.

    1620- Pilgrims land at Plymouth. The Mayflower Compact was agreed upon to form a government and abide by its laws.

    1624- The Dutch leave eight men from the ship New Netherland on Manhattan Island while the rest sail for Albany.

    1626- Manhattan Island is purchased for the Dutch by Peter Minuit from the Man-a-hat-a Indians for trinkets valued at $24.

    1634- Maryland is founded as a Catholic colony.

    1636- Harvard College is founded, now the oldest college in the U.S.; Roger Williams establishes Providence, Rhode Island.

    1654- Jewish settlers arrive at New Amsterdam.

    Pre-Revolutionary War:1660-1774

    1660- The Navigation Act is passed by the English Parliament to regulate colonial commerce.

    1664- British troops seize New Netherland from the Dutch. New Amsterdam is later renamed New York.

    1676- Nathaniel Bacon leads planters against British Gov. Berkeley. Jamestown is burned and Bacon dies.

    1682- Lower Mississippi River area is claimed for France by Robert Cavalier, Sieur de la Salle and is called Louisiana.

    1683- William Penn signs a treaty with the Delaware Indians for Pennsylvania lands.

    1692- Witchcraft accusations at Salem, Massachusetts results in nineteen executions.

    1696- American Captain William Kidd is hired by the British to fight pirates. Kidd later becomes a pirate himself and is hanged in 1701.

    1699- The French establish settlements in Mississippi and Louisiana.

    1704- "The Boston Newsletter" becomes the first regular newspaper. It was started by postmaster John Campbell.

    1709- The French fort Port Royal, Nova Scotia is captured by British-Colonial troops in the Queen Anne's War.

    1716- Williamsburg, Virginia opens the first theatre in the colonies.

    1728- Samuel Keimer founds the "Pennsylvania Gazette" in Philadelphia. Benjamin Franklin buys an interest in the Gazette in 1729.

    1732- Benjamin Franklin publishes the first "Poor Richards Almanac," which was published yearly until 1757.

    1735- John Peter Zenger, editor of the "Weekly Journal" is acquitted in New York on charges of libel for criticizing British Gov. Cosby's conduct in office.

    1740/41- Danish explorer Captain Vitus Bering, employed by the Russians, reaches Alaska.

    1744- British and Colonials fight the French in King George's War. Colonials capture Louisburg in 1745, later returning it to the French in 1748 by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.

    1752- Benjamin Franklin invents the lightning rod after first proving (with kite and key) that lightning is electricity.

    1756- The French and Indian War. In Europe called the Seven Years War. France loses Canada and the American Midwest.

    1764- The Sugar Act is imposed on the colonies, placing duties (taxes) on foodstuffs, rum, lumber, and molasses.

    1765 The Stamp Act imposed revenue stamps to help finance the cost of royal troops (it is repealed March 17, 1766). Nine colonies adopt the Declaration of Rights, opposing taxation without representation and trial without jury in admiralty courts.

    1767- Townsend Acts impose taxes on painters lead, glass, paper, and tea. In 1770 all duties were repealed except on tea.

    1770- British troops fire into a Boston crowd killing five. This was later called the Boston Massacre.

    1773- East India tea ships are turned back at Boston, New York, and Philadelphia. In Boston the cargo is thrown over board and is referred to as the Boston Tea Party.

    1774 "Intolerable Acts" of Parliament curtailed Massachusetts self rule First Continental Congress is held in Philadelphia. Rhode Island abolishes slavery. Revolutionary War:1775-1783

    1775 Patrick Henry addresses the Virginia Convention ("Give me liberty or give me death").

  • Paul Revere and William Dawes alert the patriots that the British were on the way to Concord.
  • Colonel Ethan Allen and Colonel Benedict Arnold capture Fort Ticonderoga.
  • Battle of Bunker Hill
  • Continental Congress names George Washington as Commander-in-Chief.

    1776 Richard Henry Lee (VA) asserts that "these united colonies are and of right ought to be free and independent states". This resolution was adopted July 2 and the Declaration of Independence was approved July 4.

  • The British execute Nathan Hale as a spy.
  • Washington re-crosses the Delaware in Pennsylvania and defeats 1,400 Hessians at Trenton, New Jersey.

    1777 Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union adopted by the Continental Congress.

  • Dec. 17, France recognizes the independence of the thirteen colonies.

    1778 France signs an aid treaty with the U.S.

  • British evacuate Philadelphia.

    1779- John Paul Jones defeats the British ship, Serapis.

    1780 Charleston, South Carolina falls to the British.

  • Benedict Arnold is found to be a traitor and escapes to the British army where he is made a Brigadier General.

    1781 In Philadelphia, the Bank of North America is incorporated.

  • British General Cornwallis surrenders to French and American Forces.

    1782- British cabinet agrees to recognize U.S. independence. Preliminary agreement is signed in Paris on November 30.

    1783 Massachusetts outlaws slavery.

  • Britain and U.S. sign peace treaty.
  • Washington orders his army disbanded.
  • Noah Webster publishes "American Spelling Book" Post Revolutionary War:1784-1798

    1784- First successful daily newspaper is started: "The Pennsylvania Packet and General Advisor".

    1786- Delegates from five states ask Congress to meet and write a practical constitution for the thirteen states.

    1787 Northwest Ordinance is adopted by the Continental Congress to determine government of the Northwest Territory.

  • Constitution is adopted at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. George Washington presides.

    1789 Constitution is declared in effect on March 4.

  • George Washington is chosen as President.
  • Supreme Court is created by the Federal Judiciary Act on September 24.

    1791- Bill of Rights goes into effect.

    1792- General "Mad" Anthony Wayne establishes a string of forts.

    1793- The Cotton Gin is invented by Eli Whitney.

    1794- Whiskey Rebellion; farmers in west Pennsylvania protest a liquor tax (imposed 1791).

    1795 U.S. buys peace from Algiers and Tunis by paying $800,000.00 and an annual tribute.

  • University of North Carolina becomes the first operating State University.

    1796- Washington gives farewell address as president.

    1797- Two U.S. frigates, Constellation and Constitution (also known as Old Ironsides), are launched.

    1798- War with France is threatened over French raids on U.S. shipping and the rejection of U.S. diplomats. Napoleon stops the raids after becoming First Consul.

    Early to Mid 19th Century America

    "042f">1801-1820

    "0430">1821-1840

    "0431">1841-1860

    Civil War Era:1861-1865

    1861 February 8, seven southern states set up the Confederate States of America with Jefferson Davis as President.

  • Civil War begins when the Confederates fire on Fort Sumter in Charleston, SC.
  • May 11, eleven states have seceded. Lincoln blockades southern ports. Confederates repel Union forces at the First Battle of Bull Run, July 21.
  • First transcontinental telegraph is operational.

    1862 Homestead Act is approved, granting free family farms to settlers.

  • Land Grant Act is approved to provide for public land sale to benefit agricultural education.
  • Union forces are having successes in western campaigns.

    1863 Lincoln issues Emancipation Proclamation in January, freeing all slaves in areas still in rebellion.

  • Union forces win major victory at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.
  • November 19, Lincoln reads his Gettysburg Address.
  • Draft riots in New York City protesting provisions for allowing money payment in lieu of military service. These payments stopped in 1864.

    1864 General Sherman takes Atlanta, Georgia on September 1, and Savannah, Georgia on December 22.

  • The Sand Creek Massacre of Arapaho and Cheyenne Indians by 900 cavalrymen. Tribes were awaiting terms of surrender when they were attacked.

    1865 Robert E. Lee surrenders Confederate troops to Grant at Appomattox Court House. Johnson surrenders Confederate troops to Sherman at Durham Station.

  • President Abraham Lincoln is assassinated on April 14 by John Wilkes Booth at Ford's Theater.
  • December 18, the Thirteenth Amendment abolishing slavery takes effect. Late 19th Century America:1866-1899

    "0433">1881-1899

    Early 20th Century:1900-1913

    1900- "Boxers" are suppressed in Peking with U.S. help.

    1901- President William McKinley is assassinated by Leon Czolgosz.

    1903 Panama Canal treaty is signed. President Theodore Roosevelt recognizes Panama's declared independence.

    "0432">1861-1880

  • First direct primary voting system set in Wisconsin.
  • First Transcontinental Automobile trip.
  • Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, Orville and Wilbur Wright fly 120 feet in 12 seconds in the first heavier-than-air craft.
  • Jack London publishes "Call of the Wild."

    1905- First Rotary Club of businessmen founded in Chicago.

    1906- San Francisco earthquake kills 503 and causes $350 million in damages.

    1907 Financial panic leads to an economic depression.

  • 16 U.S. Battleships referred to as the "Great White Fleet" complete a round-the-world cruise.

    1909 Admiral Robert E. Peary reaches the North Pole on April 6 after 6 attempts.

  • National Conference on the Negro leads to the founding of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People.

    1910- The Boy Scouts of America is founded.

    1911 C.P. Rodgers pilots the first transcontinental airplane flight. Total air-time was 82 hours and 4 minutes. This was not a non-stop flight.

  • Supreme Court dissolves the Standard Oil Company.

    1912 March 12, American Girl Guides is founded. The name is changed to Girl Scouts in 1913

  • U.S. sends Marines to Nicaragua because of defaulted loans to U.S. and Europe.

    1913 Federal Reserve System is approved to reform U.S. banking and finance.

  • U.S. blockades Mexico in support of revolutionaries. World War I:1914-1918

    1914 U.S. neutrality is declared by President Wilson in the European War.

  • Clayton Antitrust Act is passed to strengthen federal anti-monopoly powers.
  • Ford Motor Company raises basic wages from $2.40 for a 9-hour day, to $5 for an 8-hour day.

    1915 First telephone conversation between New York and San Francisco.

  • British ship, Lusitania, is sunk by the Germans.

    1916 General John Pershing enters Mexico to pursue Pancho Villa.

  • U.S. buys the Virgin Islands from Denmark.
  • First U.S. Congresswoman, Jeanette Rankin (Republican), is elected in Montana.
  • U.S. establishes military government in the Dominican Republic.

    1917 February 3, U.S. cuts diplomatic ties with Germany and declares war on April 6.

  • Conscription Law is passed on May 18.
  • The 18th Amendment (Prohibition) is submitted to the states by Congress.

    1918 World War I ends November 11.

  • Influenza epidemic kills 548,000 in the United States and 20 million world wide. Early-Mid 20th Century:1919-1938

    1919- U.S. navy sea plane makes first Atlantic flight.

    1920 19th Amendment is ratified giving women the right to vote.

  • Senate refuses to ratify the League of Nations Covenant.
  • League of Women Voters is founded.
  • F. Scott Fitzgerald publishes "This Side of Paradise."

    1921 Congress establishes a national quota system on immigration.

  • President Harding signs treaties declaring peace with Germany, Austria, and Hungary.

    1922- Readers Digest is founded.

    1923- First sound-on-film motion picture.

    1924

  • Congress approves a law making all Native Americans U.S. citizens.
  • Nellie Taylor Ross is elected the first female governor (Wyoming).
  • George Gershwin writes "Rhapsody in Blue."

    1925- John T. Scopes is found guilty for teaching evolution in a high school in Dayton, Tennessee.

    1926- Air Commerce Act is passed, providing federal aid for airports and airlines.

    1927 First solo transatlantic flight (New York to Paris) by Charles A. Lindbergh in the "Spirit of St. Louis." The flight was 3610 miles long, taking 33.5 hours.

  • U.S. sends 1,000 Marines to China to protect property in civil war.

    1929 St. Valentine's Day Massacre, February 14, Chicago, Illinois.

  • Agricultural Marketing Act passes to aid in farm price stability.
  • Stock Market crashes October 29, beginning the worst U.S. economic depression.

    1930- London Naval Reduction Treaty is signed by the U.S., Japan, Britain, Italy, and France.

    1931 Pearl Buck publishes "The Good Earth."

  • The Empire State Building is opened.

    1932 Son of Charles Lindbergh is presumed kidnapped and later found dead.

  • Unemployment is at 12 million.
  • Reconstruction Finance Corporation is established to stimulate business and banking.
  • "Bonus March" on Washington D.C. by W.W.I. veterans demanding that Congress pay their bonus in full.

    1933 Francis Perkins (U.S. Secretary of Labor) becomes the first woman in the U.S. Cabinet.

  • March 6, President Roosevelt (FDR) orders all banks closed.
  • Congress passes the "New Deal."
  • U.S. drops the gold standard.
  • Prohibition ends.

    1934- U.S troops are pulled from Haiti.

    1935 Social Security Act is passed.

  • Committee for Industrial Organization (CIO) is formed.
  • Will Rogers (comedian) and Wiley Post (aviator) are killed in an Alaskan plane crash.

    1936 Margaret Mitchell publishes "Gone With the Wind."

  • Boulder Dam is completed.

    1937- Amelia Earhart Putnam (aviator) is lost in the Pacific Ocean.

    1938 National minimum wage is enacted.

  • Naval Expansion Act is passed.
  • Radio dramatization of "War of the Worlds" by Orson Welles causes national scare. WWII/Korean War:1939-1952

    1939 U.S. declares neutrality in European war.

  • New York World's Fair opens.
  • John Steinbeck publishes the "Grapes of Wrath."

    1940 First peacetime draft approved.

  • Richard Wright publishes "Native Son."
  • U.S. sells surplus war material to Britain.

    1941 December 7, Japan attacks Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.

  • December 8, U.S. declares war on Japan.
  • December 11, U.S. declares war on Germany and Italy.
  • Lend-Lease Act signed providing $7 billion in military credits for Britain.

    1942 U.S. moves Japanese Americans to detention camps on West Coast.

  • Battle of Midway was Japan's first major defeat.
  • U.S. and Britain invade North Africa.
  • University of Chicago performs the first nuclear chain reaction.

    1943 U.S. troops invade Italy.

  • President Roosevelt signs income tax bill.
  • G.I. Bill of Rights is passed.

    1944 U.S. and Allied forces invade Europe at Normandy.

  • G.I. Bill of Rights is signed providing benefits to veterans.
  • U.S. forces land in the Philippines.

    1945 Yalta Conference; Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin agree that Russia would enter the war against Japan.

  • Marines land at Iwo Jima.
  • U.S. forces invade Okinawa.
  • President Roosevelt dies of a cerebral hemorrhage and Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes president.
  • Germany surrenders on May 7.
  • First atomic bomb is produced at Los Alamos, New Mexico.
  • August 6, atomic bomb is dropped on Hiroshima, Japan; and August 9, on Nagasaki, Japan.
  • August 15, Japan surrenders.
  • U.S. forces enter Korea south of the 38th parallel.
  • September 9, General Douglas MacArthur takes over supervision of Japan.

    1946 July 4, Philippines granted independence by the United States.

  • 400,000 mine workers go on strike.

    1947 Truman Doctrine is passed to help Greece and Turkey combat Communist terrorism.

  • Taft-Hartley Labor Act was meant to curb strikes. This was vetoed by Truman, but overrode by Congress.
  • Marshall Plan is extended to provide aid to European countries.
  • Jackie Robinson (Brooklyn Dodgers) becomes the first black major league baseball player.

    1948 USSR begins blockade of Berlin's Allied sectors.

  • Organization of American States founded.
  • "Sexuality in the Human Male" is published in the Kinsey Report.

    1949 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is established.

  • U.S. troops withdraw from Korea.
  • Tokyo Rose of Japanese War (Mrs. I. Toguri D'Aquino) is sentenced to 10 years in prison for treason.
  • Eleven leaders of the U.S. Communist Party are convicted for advocating the violent overthrow of the U.S. government.

    1950 President Truman authorizes production of the Hydrogen bomb (the H-bomb).

  • Truman orders Navy and Air Force into Korea.
  • U.S. sends 35 military advisors to South Vietnam.
  • U.S. forces land at Inchon.
  • U.S. recalls all consular officials from China.
  • Puerto Rican nationalists try to assassinate President Truman.
  • Truman orders the Army to seize all railroads to prevent a general strike. Railroads are returned to their original owners on 1952.

    1951 Japanese peace treaty signed in San Francisco.

  • U.S., Australia, and New Zealand sign a mutual security pact.
  • September 4, transcontinental television is inaugurated.
  • Cease-fire talks begin in Korea.
  • Julius and Ethel Rosenberg are found guilty of wartime espionage. They are executed in 1953.
  • President Truman removes General Douglas MacArthur from Korea for unauthorized policy statements.
  • Tariff concessions to Communist China and the Soviet Union are suspended.

    1952 Peace contract between U.S., Great Britain, France, and West Germany is signed.

  • Immigration and Naturalization Act is passed.
  • First hydrogen device explodes at Eniwetok Atoll in the Pacific.
  • Truman orders seizure of U.S. steel mills to avert a strike. Supreme Court rules the seizure illegal. Mid 20th Century/ Vietnam Era 1953-1975

    "0435">1961-1965

    "0436">1966-1970

    "0437">1971-1975

    Late 20th Century America (1976-1998)

    "0438">1976-1980

    "0439">1981-1985

    "043a">1986-1990

    "043b">1991-1998

    American History 1999

    Jan. 1999 Senate begins Bill Clinton's impeachment trial.U.S. admits spying on Iraq through operatives posing as UNSCOM United Nations Special Commission weapons inspectors.NBA Player Michael Jordan of the Chicago Bulls announces his retirement.

    Feb. 1999 President Clinton is acquitted of impeachment charges after both counts against him receive less than the two-thirds vote required.

    Mar. 1999 Former White House aide Monica Lewinsky discusses her relationship with President Clinton on television, to an estimated 70 million viewers.Ford Motor Company buys the Volvo car division of Sweden's Volvo A.B. for $645 billion.Baseball player Joe DiMaggio dies at the age of 84 from lung cancer. DiMaggio was known as the "Yankee Clipper" when playing with the New York Yankees.

    Apr. 1999 Two students at Columbine Highs School in Littleton, CO. (near Denver) shoot and kill 12 fellow students and one teacher.Gun control debate is refueled after Columbine High School killings. President Clinton proposes several gun-control plans to Congress.

    June 1999 Gov. George W. Bush of Texas and Vice President Al Gore declare their candidacies for President.San Antonio Spurs win first NBA title by defeating the New York Knicks 4 games to 1 in the championship series.

    July 1999 First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton considers running for the U.S. Senate seat in New York.Senate approves "Bill of Rights" for patients.JFK Jr., his wife, and her sister die in a plane crash piloted by JFK Jr.Air Force Col. Eileen M. Collins becomes the first woman to command a space shuttle flight. She pilots the U.S. Columbia.President Clinton is fined $89,000 by a District Court judge to pay for legal expenses because he had deliberately given false testimony about his relationship with White House intern Monica Lewinsky.

    Aug. 1999 The Kansas Board of Education drops the theory of evolution from the public school system.

    Sep. 1999 Congress agrees to increase the pay for the Office of the President from $200,000 to $400,000 begnning in 2001. This is the first increase for this office since 1969.President Clinton vetoes $792 billion tax cut approved by the Republican-controlled Congress.The NASA spacecraft Mars Climate Orbiter crashes into Mars, apparently due to a navigational error. The $125 million spacecraft, launched in 1998, was to gather information on the Martian atmosphere.The U.S. Government sues major American tobacco companies to recover costs of treatment for Medicare, VA, and Federal employees.

    Oct. 1999 AFL-CIO endorses Vice President Al Gore for President.House passes rigid Patient Rights Bill allowing patients to sue insurance companies that provided poor treatment or denied care.Courts determine Microsoft to be a monopoly.

    Dec. 1999 International Olympic Committee (IOC) looks into allegations that suggest bribes were paid to influence the IOC regarding its decision to allow Salt Lake City, Utah, to host the 2002 Winter Games. American History 2000

    Jan. 2000 President Clinton nominates Alan Greenspan to serve a fourth four-year term as Chairman of the Federal Reserve.President Clinton delivers the last State of the Union message of his administration.America Online agrees to buy Time-Warner for $165 billion.

    Feb. 2000 First lady Hillary Rodham Clinton officially declares her candidacy in the New York Senate race.Yahoo, Amazon, and eBay, among others, are invaded by hackers. This attack demonstrates the serious vulnerability of commercial Internet sites.Dow Jones Industrial Average falls below 10,000 level for the first time in ten months.The musical "Cats" closes after 18 years on Broadway.

    March 2000 Secretary of State Madeleine Albright relaxes U.S. sanctions on Iran and agrees to work toward normalized relations.President Clinton accepts Hurst Kohler as the next head of the International Monetary Fund.Bush and Gore win in primaries. Gun maker Smith and Wesson agrees to put greater restrictions on how it makes, sells, and distributes its handguns.The army's highest ranking female, Lieutenant General Claudia K. Kennedy, files sexual harrassment charges against Major General Larry G. Smith because of an incident that happened in 1996.

    Apr. 2000 Microsoft loses antitrust suit. U.S. judge rules its behavior anticompetitive.Congress passes a law that limits against asset seizures of personal property from the government before trials begin.

    May 2000 South Carolina General Assembly votes to remove the Confederate flag from the Capitol Dome.House votes 237-197 to give China permanent normal trading privileges.The U.S. unemployment rate falls below 4%, the lowest rate since 1970.Federal Reserve raises short-term interest rates half a percentage point against inflation.

    June 2000 Federal Judge Thomas Penfield orders the breakup of Microsoft into two separate companies, one for the Windows operating system and one for its internet businesses. Microsoft, however, wins a delay until the case is reviewed by the Supreme Court.

    July 2000 U.S. pledges $1 billion a year to help African countries fight AIDS.Despite a veto threat from the president, Congress votes to repeal estate taxes. One month later Clinton signs veto.

    Aug. 2000 After 46 deaths, Bridgestone / Firestone recall defective tires.Democrats nominate Al Gore for presidency.Republicans nominate George W. Bush for presidency.Wildfires in the western part of the U.S. are estimated to cost in excess of $1 billion to fight.

    Sept. 2000 Senate votes 83-15 to increase trade with China.President Clinton orders the release of 30 million barrels of reserve oil to offset a rise in fuel costs.The Food and Drug Administration authorizes the marketing of the "abortion pill" known as RU-486.

    Oct. 2000 17 American sailors die in an explosion aboard the Navy destroyer Cole while it was refueling in Yemen. Terrorists are suspected.Chevron Oil Company agrees to buy Texaco for $36 billion. The combined company will become the world's fourth largest oil company.NASA launches its 100th space shuttle mission.Angela Baraquio becomes the first Asian-American woman to be crowned Miss America.

    Nov. 2000 The White House celebrates its 200th anniversary.The Coca-Cola Company is required to pay $192.5 million to settle a racial discrimination lawsuit.Presidential elections result in a temporary deadlock when the votes in Florida have to be rechecked.Florida's Secretary of State declares that George W. Bush won the state's 25 electoral votes, giving him the necessary number of electoral votes to win the presidency.

    Dec. 2000 Rosa Parks, civil rights activist, is awarded the Governor's Medal of Honor for Extraordinary Courage.Sandra Baldwin is elected the first female president of the U.S. Olympic Committee.President Clinton creates the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve.Chris Weinke, quarterback for the Florida State Seminoles, becomes the oldest player to win the Heisman Trophy.The U.S. Census Bureau announces that the population of the United States is now over 281 million.General Motors plans to stop producing the Oldsmobile. The Oldsmobile brand was first produced in 1897.Montgomery Ward and Co. announces that it intends to shut down its remaining stores and file for bankruptcy. American History 2001

    Jan. 2001 Hillary Rodham Clinton is sworn in as a senator for New York State.Motorola, Inc. announces plans to close only cellular phone manufacturing plant in the U.S.Scientists in Cambridge, Mass. claim they were able to stop and then restart a beam of light, suggesting the possibility of storing light.California power companies are forced periodically to shut off electrical power to customers, they claim, in order to save power.George W. Bush is inaugurated as the 43rd President of the United States.

    Feb. 2001 Southeastern telephone company, BellSouth, plans to eliminate all its pay phones due to competition from cell phones.Appliance manufacturer Sunbeam Corp. files for bankruptcy protection.U.S. spacecraft NEAR Shoemaker lands on asteroid Eros, the first time a spacecraft has landed on an asteroid.Scientists say the Human Genome project reveals that there are approximately 30,000 human genes. Prior to these studies it was estimated that the human gene count would be closer to 100,000.Kansas State Board of Education restores the teaching of the theory of evolution. Teaching the theory was banned from the state science curriculum in 1999.Native Americans sue to recover an estimated $10 billion of their money that they believe had been mismanaged by others since 1887.U.S. National Academy of Sciences report that a meteorite from Mars found on Earth shows signs of ancient Martian bacterial life.Stock car driver Dale Earnhardt, Sr., is killed in a racing accident at the Daytona 500.

    Mar. 2001 A 14 year old Fort Lauderdale, FL, youth is sentenced to life in prison without parole for having killed a 6 year old girl when he was 12.Musicians Michael Jackson, Paul Simon, Solomon Burke, Ritchie Valens and the bands Steely Dan, Aerosmith, Queen, and the Flamingos are inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.

    Apr. 2001 NASA launches the 2001 Mar Odyssey spacecraft to stuy minerals and chemical elements on Mars.A new web site that allows users to trace their ancestry form U.S. Immigration records receives 97 million hits per hour in its second day of operation.U.S. spy plane named the Southern Cross beocmes the first unmanned aircraft to fly across the Pacific Ocean. The flight from California to Australia takes 1.5 days.

    May 2001 Former Ku Klux Klan member Thomas Blanton is convicted of murdering four African-American girls in a 1963 church bombing in Birmingham, Alabama.William and Flora Hewlett pledge $400 million to Stanford University, the largest such donation in U.S. history.Congress approves a $1.35 trillion tax cut to be spread over 10 years.After reviewing federal law, the U.S. Supreme Court rules that there is no acceptable use for marijuana.The original manuscript of Jack Kerouac's "On the Road" is auctioned for $2,430,000.Sean Conley, a 13 year old eighth grader from Anoka, MN, winds the National Spelling Bee by correctly spelling the word "succedaneum".

    Jun. 2001 Oklahoma City bomber Timothy McVeigh is executed by lethal injection at the Federal Penitentiary in Terre Haute, Indiana. 168 people were killed in the Oklahoma City bombing.Los Angeles Lakers defeat the Philadelphia 76ers, 108 to 96, to win the NBA championship for the second year in a row.George Khalid Jones defeats Beethavean Scottland in a light heavyweight boxing match in New York City. Scottland dies July 2nd due to severe head injuries sustained in the fight.New York becomes the first state to ban the use of hand-held cell phones while driving.U.S. Court of Appeals upholds a lower court's decision that Microsoft Corp. is a monopoly, but rescinds the decree that the company be broken up. American History 2001

    July 2001 The first tax rebate checks of the new federal budget are mailed out to approximately 92 million taxpayers.Lance Armstrong wins the Tour de France for the 3rd consecutive year with a time of 86 hours, 17 minutes, and 28 seconds.Scientists at California's Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory retract their 1999 claim of having created a 118th element.It is determined that the Smithsonian Institution needs approximately $1.5 billion for renovations and repairs.

    Aug. 2001 President Bush authorizes funding for stem cell research.Former President Clinton is given a $10 million advance by publishing company Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., to write his memoirs. This is the largest publishing advance ever paid.79 year old Senator Jesse Helms of North Carolina announces his retirement.An agreement between the U.S. and Mexico is reached to expand the temporary worker plan to allow many undocumented Mexicans illegally working in the U.S. to apply for work permits and legal residency.The space shuttle Discovery delivers a new crew to the International Space Station. This is the station's third crew since it became operational.

    Sep. 2001 Hewlett-Packard Co. announces plans to buy Compaq Computer Corp.Disney opens Tokyo DisneySea in Japan.Scientists provide substantial evidence of a theorized black hole at the center of the Milky Way Galaxy.United Airlines flight 175, with 56 people on board, bound for Los Angeles from Boston, is hijacked and crashed into the South Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City.American Airlines flight 11, with 81 people on board, bound for Los Angeles from Boston, is hijacked and crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center.American Airlines flight 77, with 58 people on board, bound for Los Angeles from Dulles International Airport near Washington D.C., is hijacked and crashed into the Pentagon.United Airlines flight 93, with 37 people on board, bound for San Francisco from Newark, NJ, is hijacked. Passengers on board try to retake control from the hijackers but the plane is crashed before reaching its intended target. Flight 93 crashes near Shanksville, PA.For the first time, the United States closes its airspace over the U.S. and shuts down all commercial flights in an attempt to prevent additional terrorist strikes.NASA space probe, Deep Space 1, passes within 1,400 miles of the comet Borrelly. Information and pictures taken of the comet's nucleus add greatly to the scientific understanding of comets.General Motors announces that they will quit making both the Chevrolet Camaro and the Pontiac Firebird after the 2002 model year.President Bush freezes all assets of suspected terrorists. He further states that any foreign banks who would not do the same would not be able to do business with the U.S.

    Oct. 2001 Fashion magazine Mademoiselle publishes its last issue after 66 years.U.S. and British forces launch air strikes against Taliban forces in Afghanistan.Medical authorities report the death of a Florida man as the result of pulmonary anthrax. This is the first such case in the U.S. since 1976.An assistant to NBC newsman Tom Brokaw is diagnosed with cutaneous anthrax in New York City. Officials suspect the anthrax spores came in the mail.Senate Majority Leader Tom Daschle receives mail contaminated with anthrax.Bethlehem Steel Corp. files for bankruptcy.Two Washington D.C. postal workers die of pulmonary anthrax.Investigators say that anthrax spores have been found in the U.S. House of Representatives mail room.For the first time since 1935 the U.S. Supreme Court hears cases outside the Supreme Court building in Washington D.C.. The courthouse was temporarily closed so that it could be checked for anthrax.

    Nov. 2001 American Airlines flight 587 bound for the Dominican Republic from New York City crashes just after takeoff, killing 260 people.Taliban forces withdraw from Kabul, the capitol of Afghanistan.U.S. Congress passes a security bill that will make the federal government responsible for airport security screening.George Harrison, former Beatle, dies of cancer in Los Angeles.

    Dec. 2001 American citizen John Walker is one of the last Taliban prisoners to surrender after a prison riot outside the Afghanistan city of Mazar-e Sharif.The U.S. announces withdrawal form the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty.Passengers and crew of an American Airlines flight from Paris to Miami subdue a British man, Richard Reid, attempting to ignite shoe bombs he was wearing.New York City fire department officials declare the World Trade Center fires have finally been extinguished. Important Treaties, Acts and Doctrines

    "043c">A-G

    "043d">H-K

    "043e">L-N

    "043f">O-S

    "0440">T-Z

    Native Tribes of 1600's

    "0073">North and Northeast

    "0074">Northwest

    "0075">Plains

    "0076">Southeast

    "0077">Southwest

    Native Tribes of the North/Northeast

    Abenaki <1>Algonquin <1>Conestoga <1>Delaware <1>Erie <1>Fox <1>Huron <1>Illinois <1>Iroquois <1>Kickapoo <1>Menominee <1>Miami <1>Mohawk <1>Mohican <1>Montuak <1>Narraganset <1>Ojibway <1>Oneida <1>Ottawa <1>Pawtuxet <1>Pennacook <1>Pequot <1>Potawatomi <1>Sauk <1>Seneca <1>Susquehanna <1>Wampanoag <1>Winnebago

    Native Americans of the Northwest

    Bannock <1>Chinook <1>Duwamish <1>Flathead <1>Makah <1>Nisqualli <1>Nootka <1>Paloos <1>Tenino <1>Tillamook <1>Tlingit <1>Yakima <1>Yuki

    Native Americans of the Plains

    Arapaho <1>Arikara <1>Brea <1>Blackfoot <1>Caddo Mandan <1>Cheyenne <1>Comanche <1>Cree <1>Crow <1>Iowa <1>Missouri <1>Nez Perce <1>Omaha <1>Oto <1>Osage <1>Pawnee <1>Shoshone <1>Sioux (Dakota) <1>Ute <1>Wichita

    Native Americans-Southeast

    Apalachee <1>Attacapa <1>Biloxi <1>Calusa <1>Catawba <1>Cherokee <1>Chickasaw <1>Choctaw <1>Creek <1>Croatan <1>Natchez <1>Powhatan <1>Quapaw <1>Saponi <1>Shawnee <1>Timucoa <1>Tuscarora <1>Tutelo

    Native Americans-Southwest

    Apache <1>Cochimi <1>Hopi <1>Lagunero <1>Mohave <1>Navaho <1>Paiute <1>Papago <1>Pomo <1>Peublo <1>Serrano <1>Taos <1>Walapai <1>Yuma <1>Zuni

    Revolutionary War (1775 1783)

    American Casualties: 33,769

    "0441">Signers of the Declaration of Independence

    "0442">Original Thirteen Colonies

    "0443">Events Leading to War

    "0444">War Time Significant Events

    "0445">Major Battles

    American Revolution Timeline:

    "0446">1775 / "0447">1776 / "0448">1777 / "0449">1778 / "044a">1779 / "044b">1780 / "044c">1781 / "044d">1782 / "044e">1783

    War of 1812 (1812-1814)

    The United States declares war on Great Britain over freedom of the seas for U.S. Ships trading with France.

    American Casualties: 6,765

    "044f">U.S. Naval Victories of 1812

    "0450">War of 1812 Timeline

    Mexican War (1846-1848)

    American casualties: 17,435

    "0451">Events Leading to War

    "0452">Mexican War Timeline

    Civil War:1861-1865

    Union Casualties: 646,392

    Confederate Casualties: 133,821

    "0453">Major Battles

    "0454">Gettysburg Address 1863

    "0455">Confederate States

    "0456">Confederate Government

    "0457">Union Government

    Civil War Timeline

    "0458">1861 / "0459">1862 / "045a">1863 / "045b">1864 / "045c">1865

    Spanish-American War (1898)

    American Casualties: 4,108

    "045d">Beginning of the War

    "045e">War Years

    "045f">End of the War

    World War I (1914-1918)

    World War I was the struggle for political and economic power among the European nations. Ninety percent of the world's population was represented in World War I. By the end of the war, Germany was fighting against Great Britain, United States, France, Japan, Russia, Italy, Serbia, Belgium, Romania, Montenegro, Greece, Portugal, Brazil, San Marino, Cuba, China, Nicaragua, Panama, Liberia, and Spain.

    Casualties: The number of people killed was calculated to be more than 8,000,000 people. The total number wounded was greater than 21,000,000.

    "0460">Pre-War Years

    "0461">War Begins in Europe

    "0462">U.S. Enters War

    "0463">World War I Ends

    World War II: 1939-1945

    The Axis Powers included: Germany, Italy, Japan, Romania, Hungary and Bulgaria

    The Allied Powers included: France, Britain, United States, USSR, Belgium, Australia, Canada, Brazil, Denmark, China, Greece, Netherlands, Norway, New Zealand, Poland, Norway, South Africa, Yugoslavia

    The financial cost of W.W. II was approximately $1.2 trillion.

    Civilian Casualties: Civilian deaths were estimated to be between 10,000,000 and 15,000,000 people. Germany and Poland sustained the greatest number of civilian deaths. Germany civilian deaths: 6,000,000; Poland civilian deaths: 5,000,000

    (above figures include Jews exterminated by the Nazis)

    Military Casualties: Approximately 15,000,000 military personnel were killed. Allied military deaths: 10,000,000; Axis military deaths: 5,000,000

    Russia and Germany suffered the most military deaths with Russia losing 7,000,000 military personnel and Germany losing 3,250,000.

    "0464">Major Battles and Campaigns

    World War II at a Glance

    "0465">1939 / "0466">1940 / "0467">1941 / "0468">1942 / "0469">1943 / "046a">1944 / "046b">1945

    Korean War: 1950-1953

    American Casualties: 157,530

    Korean War at a Glance

    "046c">Beginning of the War

    "046d">War Years

    "046e">End of the War

    Vietnam War:1950-1976

    American Casualties: 211,324

    "046f">Vietnam War at a Glance

    Persian Gulf War (1990-1991)

    American Casualties: 293

    "0470">Persian Gulf War at a Glance

    US History Terms and Definitions (page 1)

    "0471">(to page 2)

    "0472">Abolitionist

    "0473">Alamo

    "0474">Amendment 13th

    "0475">American Federation of Labor (AFL)

    "0476">Atlantic Charter

    "0477">Black Cabinet

    "0478">Black Codes

    "0479">Boston Massacre

    "047a">Boston Tea Party

    "047b">Bull Moose Party

    "047c">California Trail

    "047d">Carpetbagger

    "047e">Civil War

    "047f">Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)

    "0480">Cold War

    "0481">Common Sense

    "0482">Compromise of 1850

    "0483">Concentration Camp

    "0455">Confederate States

    "0484">Confederation

    "0485">Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO)

    "0486">Cumberland Road

    "0487">D-Day

    "0441">Declaration of Independence (signers of)

    "0488">Dred Scott Decision

    "0489">Farm Security Administration (FSA)

    "048a">Federal Emergency Relief Agency (FERA)

    "048b">Forty-niners

    "048c">Fourteen (14) Points

    "048d">Freedman's Bureau

    "048e">Gadsden Purchase

    "0454">Gettysburg Address

    "048f">Gila Trail

    "0490">Great Depression

    "0491">Great Society

    "0492">Holocaust

    "0493">House of Burgesses

    "0494">Impeachment

    "0495">Intolerable Acts

    "0496">Isolationism

    "007f">Korean War

    "0497">League of Nations

    "0498">Lewis and Clark Expedition

    "0499">Lincoln-Douglas Debates

    "049a">Louisiana Purchase

    "049b">Manhattan Project

    "049c">Manifest Destiny

    "049d">Mexican Cession

    "007a">Mexican War

    "049e">Missouri Compromise

    "049f">Mormon Trail

    "04a0">Mugwumps

    "04a1">NAACP

    "04a2">National Labor Relations Act

    "0072">Native American Tribes of the 1600s

    "04a3">Navigation Acts

    "04a4">New Deal

    "04a5">Old Spanish Trail

    "04a6">Oregon Trail

    "04a7">Overland Routes to the West

    "0081">Persian Gulf War

    "0471">(more)

    X@V33332"#10#10#10#1331313130#31" " ""0#1""331""" " 01" ""0#01"  """ 331""""01"""" 3301" ""0#01"" 3301"" 0#101"" 3301"" 101" " "0#101"" 0#01"""" " 0#01" " """ "3301" "" ""  #101"""101" """ #101" "  101""" "#101" "" "#101" " ""#101" " """#101" " ""#101" " "3301"""0#01" " "0#01" "  "#0#101" "  "#101"" "#33101"""3301"""#0#01""#3301""#01""331" "#0#01""#01""331"0#130#3131313310#10#10#32"#3333Ancient History 4500-901BC

    <1>4500/ 3001 BC Copper is used by the Sumerians and Egyptians.City-state civilizations are developed by the Sumerians in the area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.Egyptians develop agriculture. <1>3000/ 2001 BC Sargon, the first Akkadian king, builds Mesopotamian Empire.The study of Astronomy begins in Babylon, India, Egypt and China.Pharaonic rule is established in Egypt. <1>2000/ 1501 BC Assyrians rise to power.Oldest code of laws is developed in Babylon by King Hammurabi.Egyptians develop a 24-character alphabet.Israelites are slaves in Egypt. <1>1500/ 1001 BC The Greeks destroy the city of Troy.Shang Dynasty develops the Chinese civilization.Moses leads the Israelites out of Egypt.End of Greek civilization in Mycenae. <1>1000/ 901 B Phoenicians colonize Spain at Cadiz.Solomon builds temple in Jerusalem.

    Ancient History 900-501BC

    900/ 801 BC Carthage is established by the Phoenicians. <1>800/ 701 BC First recorded Olympic games.Earliest written music. <1>700/ 601 BC Assyrian Empire ends.The Greeks found Byzantium.Acropolis is built in Athens.Lao-Tse founds Taoism in China. <1>600/ 501 BC King Nebuchadnezzar destroys Jerusalem.Hanging Gardens of Babylon are constructed.Confucius develops philosophy religion in China.Buddha establishes Buddhism in India.

    Ancient History 500-201BC

    <1>500/ 401 BC Persians are defeated by the Greeks at Marathon."Father of Medicine", Hippocrates begins speaking in Greece.Sparta wins war with Athens.Pericles takes power in Athens. <1>400/ 301 BC Greek philosopher Socrates is executed.Euclid works on geometry.Greek philosopher Aristotle influences Greek thinking.Philip of Macedon conquers Greece then is assassinated.Alexander the Great succeeds his father Philip of Macedon.Plato succeeds Socrates as for most Greek philosopher. <1>300/ 251 BC Rome defeats Carthage. Rome becomes the dominant power in the Mediterranean.Mayan calendar is invented.Archimedes develops mathematics in Greece.First Punic War <1>250/ 201 BC Hannibal crosses the Alps to attack Rome and is defeated.Great Wall of China is built.Second Punic War

    Ancient History 200-49AD

    <1>200/151BC/ Rome begins world domination. <1>150/ 101 BC Rome destroys Carthage and conquers Greece, Macedonia, Southern France, Balearic Islands and Anatolia.Cleopatra is Queen of Egypt. <1>100/ 51 BC Julius Caesar invades Britain.Roman armies conquer Gaul (France).Roman General Pompey conquers Jerusalem. <1>50/ 1 BC Birth of Jesus Christ.Rome appoints Herod governor of Judea.Caesar crosses the Rubicon (Italy) to fight Pompey.Caesar is murdered. <1>1/ 49 AD Buddhism is introduced to China.Emperor Kuang Wu Ti establishes the Han Dynasty in China.

    Ancient History 50-299AD

    <1>50/ 99 AD Jews revolt against Rome and Jerusalem is destroyed.Roman Colosseum is built.Persecution of Christians begins by the Romans.Roman Empire expands into Mesopotamia. <1>100/ 149 AD Rome is ruled by Hadrian.Roman law is codified, postal system is built, and a wall is constructed between Scotland and England under Hadrian's rule. <1>150/ 199 AD Marcus Aurelius rules Rome.Writing, mathematics, and astronomy develop in the Mayan civilization. <1>200/ 249 AD Asia Minor is invaded by the Goths.Han Dynasty ends in China.Persian Empire is re-established. <1>250/ 299 AD Buddhism spreads throughout China.

    Ancient History 300-599AD

    <1>300/ 349AD Constantine the Great reunites Eastern and Western Roman Empires.New Roman Empire capital becomes Constantinople.Gupta dynasty begins in India. <1>350/ 399 AD The Huns (Mongols) invade Europe.Roman Empire is permanently divided with Rome as the capital of the West and Constantinople the capital of the East. <1>400/ 449 AD Western Roman Empire starts to decline.Attila the Hun attacks Roman provinces.St. Patrick returns to Ireland.St. Augustine writes "City of God". <1>450/ 499 AD End of Western Roman Empire.Theodoric the Great establishes the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy.Mayan culture peaks in Mexico.First schism between eastern and western churches begins. <1>500/ 549 AD Justinian I., the Great becomes Byzantine Emperor and issues civil laws.Plague spreads throughout Europe. <1>550/ 599 AD Mohammed founds Islam.Japan receives Buddhism.Britain receives Christianity from St. Augustine of Canterbury.

    Ancient History 600-849AD

    <1>600/ 649AD Arabs conquer Jerusalem.Arabs conquer Persia.Mohammed flees Mecca for Medina.First year of Muslim calendar. <1>650/ 699AD Arabs Attack North Africa. <1>700/ 799 AD Arab Empire encompasses the area from China to Lisbon.Arab advance into Europe is stopped by Frankish leader Charles Martel. <1>800/ 849 AD Charlemagne becomes the first Holy Roman Emperor of Rome.Arabs conquer Sardinia, Crete, and Sicily.Charlemagne dies in 814AD.

    Early Medieval: 859-999 AD

    850/ 899 Alfred the Great is King of Britain. The Vikings, under Prince Rurik, establish the Russian nation.

    900/ 949- Vikings discover Greenland.

    950/ 999 Vikings establish first colony in Greenland under Eric the Red.King Otto I. of Germany founds the Holy Roman Empire. 11th Century: 1000-1095 AD

    1000 Leif Ericson, a Viking, discovers North America. Gunpowder is invented in China.

    1009- Arabs destroy the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.

    1013- Danes control England.

    1040- Macbeth is murdered by King Duncan of Scotland.

    1053- Norman invader Robert Guiscard conquers Sicily and establishes a Kingdom in Italy.

    1054- Final separation between Western (Roman) and Eastern (Orthodox) churches.

    1055- Seljuk Turks conquer Armenia, Baghdad, Palestine, and Syria.

    1066- William of Normandy defeats the last Saxon king, Harold II.

    1095- Pope Urban II advocates war for the recapture of the Holy Lands held by the Muslims.

    12th Century: 1150-1189 AD

    1150/ 1167 University of Paris is founded in France. University of Oxford is founded in England.

    1189- Henry II is succeeded by Richard I (the "Lionhearted") in England.

    13th Century: 1211-1295 AD

    1211- Genghis Khan invades Peking (China), Russia, and conquers Persia.

    1215- King John signs the Magna Carta putting a limit on royal power.

    1233 Pope Gregory IX orders Dominicans to combat heresy, thus ushering in the Inquisition.Spanish Inquisition begins under Ferdinand and Isabella (it ends in 1834).

    1241- Mongols defeat the Germans in Silesia.

    1251- Kublai Khan establishes Yuan Dynasty in China.

    1271- Marco Polo (Venice) travels to China.

    1295- King Edward I of England summons the Model Parliament.

    14th Century: 1312-1387 AD

    1312/ 1337- Height of Mali Empire in Africa.

    1337/ 1453- French and English Kings fight for control of France in the Hundred Years War.

    1325 Renaissance begins in Italy. Muslim culture peaks in Spain. Aztecs establish capital on site where Mexico City now stands.

    1347/ 1351- Bubonic Plague (the "Black Death") kills 25 million people in Europe.

    1368- Ming Dynasty begins in China.

    1376/ 1382- John Wycliffe translates the Bible from Latin into English.

    1387- Chaucer publishes "Canterbury Tales".

    15th Century: 1415-1453 AD

    1415- Henry V of England defeats the French at Agincourt.

    1418/ 1460- Portugal sponsors exploration of Africa's coast.

    1428- French are led by Joan of Arc against England. She was later turned over to the English and burned at the stake as a heretic.

    1438- Incas rule Peru.

    1450- Florence evolves into the Center of the Renaissance.

    1453 Turks conquer Constantinople ending the Byzantine Empire. Hundred Years War between England and France ends. Late 15th Century 1455-1497AD

    1455 War of Roses begins in England between rival nobles. John Gutenberg invents the movable type press in Mainz Germany and prints the first Bible.

    1462- Ivan the Great rules Russia.

    1492 Columbus discovers the Caribbean Islands and returns to Spain. Troops of Ferdinand and Isabella conquer the Moors in Spain.

    1497 Vasco da Gama discovers a sea route to India by sailing around Africa. John Cabot, sponsored by the English, explored the Canadian coast. 16th Century 1501-1598AD

    "04a8">1501-1550AD

    "04a9">1551-1598AD

    17th Century 1600-1690AD

    "04aa">1600-1650AD

    "04ab">1651-1690AD

    18th Century 1701-1799 AD

    "04ac">1701-1750AD

    "04ad">1751-1799AD

    Early 19th Century AD (1800-1849)

    "04ae">1800-1825AD

    "04af">1826-1849AD

    Late 19th Century 1850-1899AD

    "04b0">1850-1875AD

    "04b1">1876-1899AD

    Pre-World War I Era 1900-1913AD

    1900- Hurricane kills 6,000 people in Galveston, Texas.

    1901 U.S. President McKinley is assassinated. Queen Victoria dies.

    1903 Wilbur and Orville Wright fly the first powered, heavier than air airplane, at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. Henry Ford organizes Ford Motor Company.

    1904 Russo-Japan War begins. President Roosevelt mediates the Treaty of Portsmouth, New Hampshire that ends the war. Rutherford and Soddy present the general theory of radioactivity.

    1905 General strike in Russia leads to the Czar's "October Manifesto" Einstein writes his special theory of relativity.

    1906 Earthquake strikes San Francisco, California. Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen pin-points the magnetic North Pole.

    1907 46 nations adopt 10 conventions on rules of war at the Second Hague Peace Convention. Financial panic of 1907 in the U.S.

    1908 Earthquake in Sicily and southern Italy kills 150,000.U.S. Supreme Court outlaws secondary union boycotts in the Danbury Hatters' case.

    1909- American explorers Robert Perry and Matthew Henson reach the North Pole.

    1910- The Boy Scouts of America is founded.

    1911 Manchu Dynasty is overthrown in China and the Chinese Republic is proclaimed.Aircraft are used for the first time as offensive weapons in the Turkish- Italian War. Roald Amundsen reaches the South Pole.

    1912 Balkin Wars begin Titanic sinks on maiden voyage <1>and 1,500 drown.

    1913 U.S. Federal Reserve System is established. Suffragettes demonstrate in London. World War I Era 1914-1918AD

    1914 World War I begins Panama Canal is officially opened. U.S. Marines are sent to Veracruz, Mexico to protect U.S. interests. U.S. Congress sets up the Federal Trade Commission.

    1915 U.S. protests the blockade of Britain by German submarines. France and Britain borrow $500 million from U.S. banks.

    1916 U.S. military force is expanded. Denmark sells the Virgin Islands to the U.S. for $25 million. British troops put down the Easter Rebellion in Ireland Margaret Sanger opens the first birth control clinic.

    1917 U.S. enters WWI, first U.S. troop enter France. Russian Revolution begins. Trotsky and Lenin lead the Bolsheviks to power, the Czar and his family are executed. Balfour Declaration promises Jewish homeland in Palestine.

    1918 Russian Civil War begins between the Bolsheviks (red) and the anti-Bolsheviks (white). Red's win in 1920. World-wide influenza epidemic kills 20 million people. World War I ends. Post World War I Era 1919-1929AD

    1919 Soviet control over international Communist movements is established by the Third International (Comintern) Treaty of Versailles is signed by Germany and the Allies. Brown and Alcock make the first non-stop trans-Atlantic flight.

    1920 First meeting of the League of Nations is held in Geneva, Switzerland. U.S. Congress ratifies the 19th Amendment for women's suffrage.

    1921 German liability for WWI is fixed by the Reparations Commission at 132 billion gold marks. Southern Ireland forms in Irish Free State as a self-governing dominion of the British Empire.

    1922- Mussolini marches on Rome and forms a Fascist government.

    1923 In Munich, Adolph Hitler's "Beer Hall Putsch" fails and he is sentenced to five years in jail where he writes "Mein Kampf". Ruhr is occupied by French and Belgian troops.

    1924 Lenin dies. Stalin assumes power as Soviet Dictator. Teapot Dome scandal in the U.S. involving fraudulent leases of naval oil reserves.

    1925 Nellie Tayloe Ross (Wyoming) is elected first female governor in U.S. "Monkey Trial" in Tennessee in which John Scopes is convicted of teaching evolution in a public school. Hitler publishes Volume 1 of Mein Kampf.

    1926 Major labor strike in Britain brings the country to a standstill. U.S. Marines are sent to Nicaragua during a revolt. Gertrude Ederle (U.S.) becomes the first woman to swim the English Channel.

    1927 German economy collapses. Trotsky is expelled from the Russian Communist Party. Charles A. Lindbergh completes the first solo flight across the Atlantic in the "Spirit of St. Louis".

    1928 In Paris, 65 nations sign the Kellogg-Briand Pact outlawing war.Alexander Fleming discovers penicillin.

    1929 Vatican City is established as independent by the Lateran Treaty. Trotsky is expelled from Russia. U.S. stock market crashes. Pre-World War II Era 1930-38AD

    1930

    Nazis gain in German elections. U.S., Britain, Japan, France, and Italy sign naval disarmament treaty.

    1931

    King AlfonsoXIII is overthrown and Spain becomes a republic. German industrialists finance the Nazi party. Japanese occupation of Manchuria is started by Mukden Incident. Harold C. Urey discovers heavy hydrogen.

    1932

    Amelia Earhart becomes first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean. U.S. Congress sets up the Reconstruction Finance Corporation to stimulate U.S. economy.

    1933

    Hitler is appointed German Chancellor and assumes dictatorial powers. Japan and Germany withdraw from the League of Nations. U.S. recognizes the USSR. Prohibition is repealed. President Roosevelt establishes the "New Deal"

    1934

    USSR is admitted to the League of Nations. Hitler becomes Fhrer of Germany. Nazis assassinate Chancellor Dollfus of Austria.

    1935

    Nazis denounce the Versailles Treaty. Mussolini invades Ethiopia. Roosevelt initiates second phase of the "New Deal".

    1936

    Germany occupies Rhineland. Italy annexes Ethiopa. Rome-Berlin Axis is formed. Trotsky is exiled to Mexico. Spanish Civil War begins. War between Japan and China begins. Germany and Japan sign Anti-Comintern Pact, which Italy signs in 1937.

    1937

    Italy withdraws form the League of Nations. Japan invades China. Hitler repudiates the war guilt clause of the Versailles Treaty. Amelia Earhart is lost over the Pacific Ocean.

    1938

    Germany marches into Austria. France, Britain and Italy sign the Munich Pact allowing Germany to partition Czechoslovakia. World War II Era 1939-1945 AD

    1939 Germany occupies Bohemia and Moravia. Russo-Finnish War begins. World War II begins. Germany invades Poland. President Roosevelt declares U.S. neutrality in European war. New York's World's Fair opens.

    1940 USSR annexes Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Trotsky is assassinated in Mexico. U.S. creates Selective Service Act.

    1941- Japan attacks U.S. forces at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii forcing the U.S. to enter World War II.

    1942 U.S. establishes women's military service. The Declaration of United Nations is signed in Washington.

    1943- U.S. initiates income tax withholding.

    1944 International Monetary Fund and World Bank is created at the Bretton Woods Conference. USSR, Britain, and U.S. propose the establishment of the United Nations at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference. U.S. enacts the GI Bill of Rights.

    1945 Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill meet at the Yalta Conference to plan the final defeat of Germany. Germany surrenders on May 7. United Nations is established at the San Francisco Conference. Truman, Stalin, and Churchill plan for German reconstruction at the Potsdam Conference. Japan surrenders on September 2. Post World War II Era 1946-1962AD

    "04b2">1946-1954AD

    "04b3">1955-1962AD

    Vietnam War Era

    1963 West Germany and France sign a treaty pledging cooperation.Washington-Moscow communications link is established ("hot-line").President Kennedy is assassinated in Dallas, Texas. Lyndon B. Johnson becomes president.

    1964- Congress approves Gulf of Tonkin resolution allowing the president necessary power to maintain peace in Vietnam.

    1965 Black-nationalist leader Malcolm X is shot and killed in New York City.U.S. Marines are sent to Dominican Republic.Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. is arrested in Selma, Alabama for protesting voter registration rules.

    1966- Blacks riot in Watts, Los Angeles. Two die and 25 are injured, with property damage in the millions.

    1967 Arab-Israeli Six Day War, in which Israel gains the Golan Heights, Sinai Peninsula, Gaza Strip, and the east bank of the Suez Canal.Red (Communist) China detonates its first hydrogen bomb.First human heart transplant performed by Dr. Christian Barnard (South Africa).Racial violence breaks out throughout the U.S.

    1968 North Koreans seize the U.S. Navy ship Pueblo.Martin Luther King is assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee.Senator Robert F. Kennedy is assassinated in Los Angeles, California.Russians invade Czechoslovakia.Tet offensive (Vietnam)

    1969 Richard M. Nixon becomes the President of the U.S.Apollo II lands on the moon. Neil Armstrong (U.S. astronaut) becomes the first man to walk on another celestial body.

    1970 Biafra surrenders to Nigeria after failing to gain independence.Rhodesia severs ties with Britain.U.S. Senate repeals Gulf of Tonkin resolution.U.S. sends troops to Cambodia.

    1971 Communist China becomes a member of the United Nations while Nationalist China is expelled.Twenty-sixth Amendment to the Constitution lowers the U.S. voting age to 18.U.S. Supreme Court rules that busing students is allowed to achieve desegregation.

    1972 President Nixon visits Communist China.Direct rule of Northern Ireland is taken over by the British.U.S. Supreme Court rules that the death penalty is unconstitutional.Eleven Israeli athletes are killed by Arab terrorists during the Olympic Games in Munich, Germany.

    1973 Denmark, Ireland, and Great Britain enter the European Common Market.Nixon accepts responsibility, but not blame for Watergate.Peace pacts are signed in Paris ending the Vietnam War (longest war in U.S. history).Fourth Arab-Israeli War begins when Syria and Egypt attack Israel on holy day Yom Kippur.Israel and Egypt sign cease-fire agreement on November 11. Modern Contemporary Period

    "04b4">1974-1980AD

    "04b5">1981-1985AD

    "04b6">1986-1990AD

    "04b7">1991-1999AD

    "04b8">1999AD

    "04b9">2000AD

    "04ba">2001AD

    The Crusades 1095-1291

    1095- Pope Urban II calls for war to rescue the Holy Lands from Moslem rule.

    First Crusade <1>1096- Peter the Hermit leads 500,000 peasants from Western Europe to fight in the Holy Lands, most are massacred by the Turks.

    1096/ 99- Prince's Crusade is made up of princes and European nobility. They capture the city of Antioch and go on to capture the holy city of Jerusalem, setting up the Crusader States to be ruled by Europeans.

    Second Crusade <1>1147/ 49- Christian Crusader State of Edessa falls to the Moslems. Louis VIII, King of France, and Conrad III, German Emperor lead the second crusade to the Holy Lands.

    Third Crusade <1>1189/ 91- Third crusade was prompted by the recapture of the holy city by Moslem leader Saladin (Turkish). It ended in the defeat of Western European leaders, however King Richard (England) the Lion-Hearted arranged a treaty allowing Christians to visit the Holy City.

    Fourth Crusade <1>1202/ 04- Initiated by Pope Innocent III, this crusade planned to attack the Holy Land from Egypt. It did nothing to change the situation in the Holy Land.

    Children's Crusade <1>1212- This was made by groups of French and English children. Most perished, many were taken as slaves into Turkish territories, straggled home, or wandered about Europe.

    Fifth Crusade <1>1228/ 29- Led by German Emperor Frederick II, it resulted in a treaty which passed Jerusalem into Christian hands. In 1244 the Turks again recapture Jerusalem.

    Sixth and Seventh Crusades <1>1248/ 70- The sixth and seventh crusades were led by Louis IX, King of France and failed to liberate Jerusalem from the Moslems. The crusades end in 1291 with the fall of the city of Acre. The Holy City remained in Moslem control until World War I.

    French Revolution 1789-1797

    1789-1790 July 4- French mob storms the Bastille (prison which was the symbol of royal power) after King Louis XVI dismissed former Minister of Finance Jacques NeckerNational Assembly is legalized by King Louis XVI and votes for a Constitution, initiating a limited monarchy and various other reforms.Committee of Public Safety initiates a reign of terror as a political control measure.Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette are imprisoned in Tuileries Palace.

    1791 - National Assembly adopts the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen.

    1792 War of the First Coalition begins. Spain, Austria, Netherlands, Prussia, and Britain fight to restore the French Nobility (it lasts until 1797).King Louis XVI is convicted of treason.

    1793- King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette are put to death by guillotine in Paris.

    1794 - Robespierre is arrested and guillotined.

    1795 Third French Constitution establishes the Directory Government.National Assembly is legalized by King Louis XVI and votes for a Constitution, initiating a limited monarchy and various other reforms.Committee of Public Safety initiates a reign of terror as a political control measure.

    1796/ 1797- Treaty of Campo-Formio is signed between France and Austria.

    Napoleons War 1797-1815

    Napoleon gains control of France <1>1797- Directory government gives Napoleon Bonaparte command of an army and he defeats the Austrians.

    1798- Napoleon launches an unsuccessful campaign against the British in Egypt.

    1799 Coup led by Napoleon overthrows the Directory government.Napoleon becomes a member of the First Consul, one of three who ruled France.

    Fighting Continues <1>1800- Napoleon conquers Italy.

    1801- France and Austria establish a temporary peace.

    1804- Napoleon declares himself Emperor of France.

    1805 Russian and Austrian forces are defeated at the Battle of Austerlitz. Lord Nelson defeats French-Spanish fleets in the Battle of Trafalgar.

    The Final Years <1>1808- Peninsular War in which Spanish guerrillas are aided by British in their fight against Napoleon.

    1812- Napoleons Grand Army invades Russia but is forced to retreat as winter sets in. Napoleon loses most of his 600,000 men.

    1814- War of Liberation begins in which Portugal, Sweden, Prussia, Russia, Britain, and Austria join forces to defeat France and exile Napoleon to the island of Elba, off the coast of Italy.

    1815- "Hundred Days" that Napoleon again attempts to gain control of France. He is defeated by Wellington at Waterloo and is exiled to St. Helena in the South Pacific.

    1815/ 24- Louis XVIII rules France after Napoleons downfall.

    Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871

    1866 Seven Weeks War begins between Prussia and Austria. Premier Otto van Bismarck establishes Prussia as the head of the German states. German General Helmuth von Moltke defeats the Austrian army at Sodowa. The Treaty of Prague results in a tentative peace between Germany, its allies and Austria.Napoleon III of France becomes threatened by Germany's new position of power in Europe.

    1870 Spanish throne is offered to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern (Germany) who turns it down. France then demands the promise from Germany that no Prussian prince will take the Spanish throne. Germany refuses this demand.France declares war on Germany.German victory at Weissenburg separates French forces under Achille Bazaine and Maire MacMahon.MacMahon and Napoleon III attempt to rescue Bazaine and are defeated at Sadon. Napoleon and 100,000 troops are captured. News of this defeat reaches Paris, Napoleon is deposed and France is declared a Republic.German army establishes a blockade of Paris and commences a four-month siege. Paris yields in February.

    1871 Bazaine surrenders his 180,000 troops in OctoberJanuary 28- Armistice is signed.May 2- Treaty of Frankfort is signed forcing France to pay a billion-dollar indemnity (over three years), give up Alsace and one fifth of Lorraine.

    NOTE: The Franco-Prussian War set the stage for World War I. in Europe.

    Explorers and Adventurers

    "04bb">Amundsen, Roald

    "04bc">Armstrong, Neil

    "04bd">Balboa, Vasco Nunez de

    "04be">Bering, Vitus

    "04bf">Cabot, John

    "04c0">de Champlain, Samuel

    "04c1">Columbus, Christopher

    "04c2">Cook, James

    "04c3">de Coronado, Francisco Vasquez

    "04c4">Cortez, Hernando

    "04c5">De Soto, Hernando

    "04c6">Drake, Sir Francis

    "04c7">Earhart, Amelia

    "04c8">Eric The Red

    "04c9">Ericsson, Leif

    "04ca">Gagarin, Yuri

    "04cb">Gama, Vasco Da

    "04cc">Glen, John H. Jr.

    "04cd">Hudson, Henry

    "04ce">Kidd, Captain William

    "04cf">Lewis and Clark Expedition

    "04d0">Lindbergh, Charles Augustus

    "04d1">Magellan, Ferdinand

    "04d2">Peary, Robert Edwin

    "04d3">Pizarro, Francisco

    "04d4">Polo, Marco

    "04d5">Ponce De Leon, Juan

    "04d6">Post, Wiley

    "04d7">Shepard, Alan B. Jr.

    "04d8">Smith, John

    "04d9">da Verrazzano, Giovanni

    Famous Government and World Leaders (page 1)

    "04da">Alexander the Great

    "04db">Amin, Idi

    "04dc">Andropov, Yuri

    "04dd">Antony, Mark

    "04de">Aquino, Corazon Cojoangco

    "04df">Astor, Nancy Langhorne

    "04e0">Bhutto, Benazar

    "04e1">Bolivar, Simon

    "04e2">Brown, John

    "04e3">Castro, Fidel

    "04e4">Charlegmagne

    "04e5">Charles, Prince

    "04e6">Chisholm, Shirley Anita St. Hill

    "04e7">Churchill, Winston

    "04e8">Cleopatra

    "04e9">Cromwell, Oliver

    "04ea">Darrow, Clarence Seward

    "04eb">David

    "04ec">Davis, Jefferson

    "04ed">Disraeli, Benjamin

    "04ee">Eichmann, Adolf

    "04ef">Eisenhower, Dwight David

    "04f0">Engels, Friedrich

    "04f1">Gandhi, Indira

    "04f2">Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand

    "04f3">Garfield, James Abram

    "04f4">Goldwater, Barry

    "04f5">Gorbachev, Mikhail Sergeyevich

    "04f6">Grant, Ulysses Simpson

    "04f7">Hadrian, Publius Aelius Hadrianus

    "04f8">Hammurabi

    "04f9">Hannibal

    "04fa">Harrison, William Henry

    "04fb">Henry VIII

    "04fc">Henry, Patrick

    "04fd">Hirohito

    "04fe">Hitler, Adolf

    "04ff">Holmes, Oliver Wendell Jr.

    "0500">Ivan IV

    "0501">more

    Famous Inventors

    "0502">Arkwright, Sir Richard

    "0503">Bell, Alexander Graham

    "0504">Eastman, George

    "0505">Edison, Thomas Alva

    "0506">Franklin, Benjamin

    "0507">Fulton, Robert

    "0508">Gutenberg, Johannes

    "0509">Howe, Elias

    "050a">Lawrence, Ernest

    "050b">Marconi, Guglielmo Marquis

    "050c">Morse, Samuel Finley Breese

    "050d">Nobel, Alfred Bernhard

    "050e">Stephenson, George

    "050f">Volta, Alessandro

    "0510">Watt, James

    "0511">Westinghouse, George

    "0512">Whitney, Eli

    "0513">Wright, Orville & Wilbur

    "0514">von Zeppelin, Count Ferdinand

    Literary Writers

    "0515">Asimov, Isaac

    "0516">Buck, Pearl

    "0517">Carroll, Lewis (Pen Name)

    "0518">Cervantes, Miguel de

    "0519">Clemens, Samuel

    "051a">Dante, Alighieri

    "051b">Dickens, Charles

    "051c">Fitzgerald, (Francis) Scott

    "051d">George, Henry

    "051e">Golding, William Gerald

    "051f">Grimm, Jakob Ludwig & Wilhelm Karl

    "0520">Hawthorne, Nathaniel

    "0521">Hemingway, Ernest

    "0522">Hugo, Victor

    "0523">Keller, Helen Adams

    "0524">King, Stephen

    "0525">Kipling (Joseph) Rudyard

    "0526">Machiavelli, Niccolo

    "0527">Melville, Herman

    "0528">Mitchell, Margaret

    "0529">Orwell, George

    "052a">Pearle, Norman Vincent

    "052b">Poe, Edgar Allan

    "052c">Pulitzer, Joseph

    "052d">Shaw, George Bernard

    "052e">Shakespeare, William

    "052f">Steinbeck, John

    "0530">Stowe, Harriet Elizabeth Beecher

    "0531">Swift, Jonathan

    "0532">Thoreau, Henry David

    "0533">Verne, Jules

    "0534">Webster, Noah

    "0535">Wells, Herbert George

    "0536">Wiggin, Kate Douglas

    "0537">Wilde, Oscar

    "0538">Wright, Richard

    Military Figures

    "0539">Arnold, Benedict

    "053a">Bonaparte, Napoleon

    "053b">Bradley, Omar Nelson

    "053c">Bull, Sitting

    "053d">Caesar, Julius

    "053e">Cornwallis, Charles

    "053f">Custer, George Armstrong

    "0540">Dewey, George

    "0541">Dreyfus, Alfred

    "0542">Hale, Nathan

    "0543">Houston, Sam

    "0544">Jones, John Paul

    "0545">Lawrence of Arabia

    "0546">Lee, Robert Edward

    "0547">MacArthur, Douglas

    "0548">Patton, George Smith Jr.

    "0549">Perry, Matthew Calbraith

    "054a">Perry, Oliver Hazard

    "054b">Pershing, John Joseph

    "054c">Rickenbacker, Edward "Eddie" Vernon

    "054d">Rommel, Erwin

    "054e">Sherman, William Techumseh

    "054f">Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, Duke

    Famous Musicians

    "0550">Bach, Johann Sebastian

    "0551">Beethoven, Ludwig Von

    "0552">Berlin, Irving

    "0553">Brahms, Johannes

    "0554">Chopin, Frederic Francois

    "0555">Dvorak, Anton

    "0556">Foster, Stephen Collins

    "0557">Gershwin, George

    "0558">Lennon, John

    "0559">Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus

    "055a">Puccini, Giacomo

    "055b">Schubert, Franz

    "055c">Schumann, Robert

    "055d">Strauss, Johann

    "055e">Stravinsky, Igor

    "055f">Tchaikovsky, Peter Ilich

    "0560">Wagner, (Wilhelm) Richard

    Philosophers

    "0561">Aristotle

    "0562">Bacon, Francis

    "0563">Descartes, Rene'

    "0564">Dewey, John

    "0565">Epicurus

    "0566">Goethe, Johann Wolfgang Von

    "0567">Kant, Immanuel

    "0568">Lao Tzu

    "0569">Nietzsche, Frederick Wilhelm

    "056a">Nostradamus

    "056b">Pascal, Blaise

    "056c">Plato

    "056d">Satre, Jean Paul

    "056e">Socrates

    "056f">Spinoza, Baruch

    "0570">Voltaire, Jean Francois Marie Arouet

    "0571">Whitehead, Alfred North

    Famous Poets

    "0572">Browning, Elizabeth Barrett

    "0573">Browning, Robert

    "0574">Chaucer, Geoffrey

    "0575">Emerson, Ralph Waldo

    "0576">Frost, Robert

    "0577">Holmes, Oliver Wendell

    "0578">Homer

    "0579">Keats, John

    "057a">Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth

    "057b">Omar Khayyam

    "057c">Shelly, Percy Bysshe

    "057d">Stevenson, Robert Louis

    "057e">Tennyson, Alfred

    "057f">Whitman, Walt

    Religious Figures

    "0580">Augustine, Saint

    "0581">Buddha

    "0582">Calvin, John

    "0583">Christ, Jesus

    "0584">Confucius

    "0585">Eddy, Mary Baker

    "0586">Graham, Billy

    "0587">Khomeini, Ruhollah

    "0588">Knox, John

    "0589">Luther, Martin

    "058a">Mohammed

    "058b">Moon, Sun Myung

    "058c">Pope John Paul II

    "058d">Smith, Joseph

    "058e">Teresa

    "058f">Xavier, Francis, Saint

    Scientists

    "0590">Ampere, Andre-Marie

    "0591">Avogadro, Amedeo

    "0592">Barton, Clara

    "0593">Berelson, Bernard

    "0594">Bertrand, Russell

    "0595">Bohr, Neils

    "0596">Boyle, Robert

    "0597">Bush, Vannevar

    "0598">Clausius, Rudolph

    "0599">Coprenicus, Nicolas

    "059a">Cousteau, Jacques-Yves

    "059b">Crick, Francis & Watson, James

    "059c">Curie, Pierre & Marie

    "059d">Dalton, John

    "059e">Darwin, Charles

    "059f">Ehrlich, Paul

    "05a0">Einstein, Albert

    "05a1">Euclid

    "05a2">Euler, Leonhard

    "05a3">Fahrenheit, Gabriel

    "05a4">Faraday, Michael

    "05a5">Fermi, Enrico

    "05a6">Flemming, Sir Alexander

    "05a7">Freud, Sigmund

    "05a8">Fuller, Buckminister

    "05a9">Galilei, Galileo

    "05aa">Goodall, Jane

    "05ab">Halley, Edmund

    "05ac">Helmholtz, Herman

    "05ad">Herschel, Sir William

    "05ae">Hertz, Heinrich

    "05af">Hippocrates

    "05b0">Hooke, Robert

    "05b1">Hubble, Edwin

    "05b2">Huxley, Thomas Henry

    "05b3">Jenner, Edward

    "05b4">Joule, James

    "05b5">Jung, Carl Gustav

    "05b6">Kepler, Johannes

    "05b7">Koch, Robert

    "05b8">Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent

    "05b9">Leakey, Louis Seymour Bazett

    "05ba">Libby, Willard F.

    "05bb">Lister, Joseph

    "05bc">Maxwell, James Clerk

    "05bd">Mead, Margaret

    "05be">Mendel, Gregor Johann

    "05bf">Mendeleev, Dmitri

    "05c0">Muir, John

    "05c1">Napier, John

    "05c2">Newton, Sir Isaac

    "05c3">Nightingale, Florence

    "05c4">Ohm, George Simon

    "05c5">Oppenheimer, J. Robert

    "05c6">Pasteur, Louis

    "05c7">Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich

    "05c8">Planck, Max Carl Ernst Ludwig

    "05c9">Pythagoras

    "05ca">Rutherford, Sir Ernest

    "05cb">Sakharov, Andrei Dmitriyevich

    "05cc">Schweitzer, Albert

    "05cd">Skinner, Burrhus Frederic

    "05ce">Thomson, Sir Joseph John

    Famous Visual Artists

    "05cf">Adams, Ansel

    "05d0">Botticelli, Sandro

    "05d1">Christo

    "05d2">Correggio

    "05d3">Dali, Salvador

    "05d4">Donatello

    "05d5">van Gogh, Vincent

    "05d6">Matisse, Henri

    "05d7">Michelangelo, Buonarotti

    "05d8">Miro, Joan

    "05d9">Monet, Claude

    "05da">Moses, Anna Mary Robertson

    "05db">Picasso, Pablo Ruiz Y

    "05dc">Raphael, Santi

    "05dd">Rembrandt

    "05de">Rockwell, Norman

    "05df">Rodin, Francois Auguste

    "05e0">Rubens, Peter Paul

    "05e1">Vandyke, Sir Anthony

    "05e2">da Vinci, Leonardo

    "05e3">Wright, Frank Lloyd

    Miscellaneous Famous People

    "05e4">Appleseed, Johnny

    "05e5">Houdini, Harry

    "05e6">Post, Emily Price

    "05e7">Rogers, Will

    "05e8">Ruth, George Herman

    "05e9">Santa Claus AKA Saint Nicholas<1>

    X@x33033031303313331!331!3031303"303"3!31!331!331331!3"!3"3"3"3"3"3"3"3"3"3"3"3"3"3"3"3"3"3"31"!"3"!"3""!31""3""3"!"!31"!"3""3"31"!3"31"!303"!3031"!331"333"333133033033Terms and Definitions- Basic Math

    "05ea">A-D

    "05eb">E-L

    "05ec">M-P

    "05ed">Q-Z

    Computing Cube Roots

    The cube root of a number is a number whose "00b4">cube is the original number.

    EXAMPLE:

    "05ee"

    This is true because 23 = 2 2 2 =8.

    Computing Interest

    "05ef">Computing Simple Interest

    "05f0">Computing Compound Interest

    Computing Square Roots

    The square root of a number is a number whose "00bc">square is the original number.

    EXAMPLE:

    "05f1"

    This is true because 6 6 = 36.

    Cubing Numbers

    In order to cube a number, multiply it by itself three times. Note that this is the same as raising the "00ba">number to the power 3.

    EXAMPLE: 53 = 5 5 5

    To compute this product, multiply 5 5, and then multiply the result by 5.

    5 5 = 25

    25 5 = 125

    EXAMPLE: (1.2) 3 = 1.2 1.2 1.2

    To compute this product, multiply 1.2 1.2, and then multiply the resulting decimal by 1.2. (Note: See "05f2">Multiplying Decimals.)

    1.2 1.2 = 1.44

    1.44 1.2 = 1.728

    Decimals and Percents

    "00af"

    "05f3">Adding Decimals"05f4">Changing Decimals Directly to Percents"05f5">Changing Decimals to Fractions"05f6">Changing Fractions to Decimals"05f7">Changing Fractions to Percents"05f8">Changing Percents Directly To Decimals"05f9">Changing Percents to Decimals Using Equivalent Fractions"05fa">Dividing Decimals"05fb">Finding Percents of Numbers "05fc">Finding the Lowest Common Denominator (LCD)"05f2">Multiplying Decimals"05fd">Subtracting Decimals"00e1">Place Value Chart Fractions

    "00af"

    "05fe">Adding Fractions with Like Denominators "05ff">Adding Fractions with Unlike Denominators "05f5">Changing Decimals to Fractions"05f6">Changing Fractions to Decimals"05f7">Changing Fractions to Percents"0600">Changing Improper Fractions to Mixed Numbers"0601">Changing Mixed Numbers to Improper Fractions"05f9">Changing Percents to Decimals Using Equivalent Fractions"0602">Dividing Fractions"0603">Factoring Whole Numbers"0604">Finding the Greatest Common Factor"05fc">Finding the Lowest Common Denominator"0605">Least Common Multiple"0606">Mixed Numbers"0607">Multiplying Fractions"0608">Prime Numbers"0609">Reducing Fractions to Lowest Terms"060a">Simplifying Fractions"060b">Subtracting Fractions with Like Denominators"060c">Subtracting Fractions with Unlike Denominators Mixed Numbers

    "00af"

    "060d">Adding Mixed Numbers with Like Denominators"060e">Adding Mixed Numbers with Unlike Denominators"060f">Dividing Mixed Numbers"0610">Multiplying Mixed Numbers"0611">Subtract Mixed Numbers with Like Denominators (Regrouping)"0612">Subtract Mixed Numbers with Like Denominators (No Regrouping)"0613">Subtract Mixed Numbers with Unlike Denominators (Regrouping)"0614">Subtract Mixed Numbers with Unlike Denominators (No Regroup) Scientific notation

    "00af"

    "0615">Writing Large Numbers Using Scientific Notation"0616">Writing Small Numbers Using Scientific Notation Numbers with Signs

    "00af"

    "0617">Adding Numbers with Opposite Signs"0618">Adding Numbers with the Same Signs"0619">Dividing Numbers with Opposite Signs"061a">Dividing Numbers with the Same Signs"061b">Multiplying Numbers with Opposite Signs"061c">Multiplying Numbers with the Same Signs"061d">Subtracting Numbers with Opposite Signs"061e">Subtracting Numbers with the Same Signs Raising Numbers to Powers

    In order to raise a number to a power p, multiply the number times itself p times.

    EXAMPLE: 52 = 5 5 = 25

    EXAMPLE: (1.2) 3 = 1.2 1.2 1.2

    To compute this product, multiply 1.2 1.2, and then "05f2">multiply the resulting decimal by 1.2.

    1.2 1.2 = 1.44

    1.44 1.2 = 1.728

    EXAMPLE:

    "061f"

    To compute this product, "0610">multiply the mixed number times itself 4 times.

    STEP 1. Change the mixed number to an improper fraction.

    "0620"

    STEP 2. Multiply the improper fraction times itself four times. This can be accomplished in the following manner. Multiply (7/3) (7/3), then multiply the result by (7/3), and multiply the result of this by (7/3). This gives a total of four copies of the fraction in the product. (Note: See "0607">Multiplying Fractions.)

    "0621"

    STEP 3. If necessary, simplify. In this example, the answer is an "010c">improper fraction, so you should "0600">change it to a mixed number.

    "0622"

    Rounding

    When you round a number, you are giving an approximate value for the given number with a specified accuracy.

    EXAMPLE: Round the number 324,876 to the nearest hundred.

    The digit to the right of the hundreds place is 7. Since this digit is greater than 5 you "round up." Change the 8 in the hundreds place up to a 9 and replace the digits to the right of the hundreds place with zeroes.

    Rounded number = 324,900

    EXAMPLE: Round the number 0.6390674 to the nearest thousandth.

    The digit to the right of the thousandths place is 0. Since this digit is less than 5 you "round down." Leave the 9 in the thousandths place unchanged and replace the digits to the right of the thousandths place with zeroes.

    Rounded number = 0.6390000

    EXAMPLE: Round the number 328,500 to the nearest thousand.

    The digit to the right of the thousands place is 5. In this case, you "round up." Change the 8 in the thousands place up to a 9 and replace the digits to the right of the thousands place with zeroes.

    Rounded number = 329,000

    Squaring Numbers

    In order to square a number, multiply it by itself. Note that this is the same as "00ba">raising the number to the power 2.

    EXAMPLE: <1>52 = 5 5 = 25

    EXAMPLE: <1>(1.2) 2 = 1.2 1.2 = 1.44 <1>(Note: See "05f2">Multiplying Decimals.)

    Basic Math Symbols

    +

    plus, add

    -

    minus, subtract

    multiplied by, multiply

    divided by, divide

    =

    equal to

    not equal to

    >

    is greater than

    <

    is less than

     or {}

    empty set

    is greater than or equal to

    is less than or equal to

    :

    is compared to, ratio

    infinity

    angle

    right angle

    perpendicular

    ||

    parallel to

    square root

    union

    intersection

    pi Algebra Terms and Definitions

    "0623">A-B

    "0624">C-D

    "0625">E-G

    "0626">H-L

    "0627">M-N

    "0628">O-P

    "0629">Q-R

    "062a">S-T

    "062b">U-Z

    Fundamental Algebra Laws

    "062c">Additive Identity

    "062d">Additive Inverses

    "062e">Associative Law of Addition

    "062f">Associative Law of Multiplication

    "0630">Closure Law of Addition

    "0631">Closure Law of Multiplication

    "0632">Commutative Law of Addition

    "0633">Commutative Law of Multiplication

    "0634">Distributive Law for Multiplication and Addition

    "0635">Distributive Law for Multiplication and Subtraction

    "0636">Multiplicative Identity

    "0637">Multiplicative Inverses

    "0638">Zero Law

    Basic Algebraic Operations

    "0639">Adding Expressions with Like Signs

    "063a">Adding Expressions with Opposite Signs

    "063b">Adding Rational Expressions (Fractions)

    "063c">Changing Fractions to Equivalent Rational Expressions

    "063d">Dividing Expressions with Like Signs

    "063e">Dividing Expressions with Opposite Signs

    "063f">Dividing Rational Expressions (Fractions)

    "0640">Multiplying Expressions with Like Signs

    "0641">Multiplying Expressions with Opposite Signs

    "0642">Multiplying Rational Expressions (Fractions)

    "0643">Subtracting Expressions with Like Signs

    "0644">Subtracting Expressions with Opposite Signs

    "0645">Subtracting Rational Expressions (Fractions)

    Postulates and Properties

    "0646">Equations

    "0647">Inequalities

    "0648">Exponents

    Terms and Definitions: Circles

    "0649">Angular Measure of a Major Arc

    "064a">Angular Measure of a Minor Arc

    "064b">Angular Measure of a Sector

    "064c">Arc

    "064d">Center

    "064e">Central Angle

    "064f">Chord

    "0650">Circle

    "0651">Circumference

    "0652">Circumscribed

    "0653">Common Tangent Line

    "0654">Concentric

    "0655">Congruent

    "0656">Diameter

    "0657">Endpoints of an Arc

    "0658">Exterior

    "0659">External Common Tangent Line

    "065a">External Portion of a Segment of a Secant

    "065b">Externally Tangent Circles

    "065c">Inscribed

    "065d">Inscribed Angle

    "065e">Intercepted Arc

    "065f">Interior

    "0660">Internal Common Tangent Line

    "0661">Internally Tangent Circles

    "0662">Major Arc

    "0663">Midpoint of an Arc

    "0664">Minor Arc

    "0665">Pi

    "0666">Point of Tangency

    "0667">Radius (Plural: Radii)

    "0668">Secant

    "0669">Sector

    "066a">Segment of a Circle

    "066b">Segment of a Secant

    "066c">Segment of a Tangent Line

    "066d">Semicircle

    "066e">Tangent

    "066f">Tangent Line

    Theorems and Corollaries

    "00e7">Arcs and Central Angles

    "00e8">Arcs and Inscribed Angles

    "00e9">Angles made by Tangents, Secants or Chords

    "00ea">Tangent Segments, Secant Segments and Chords

    "00eb">Arcs and Chords

    "00ec">Area, Arc Lengths and Circumferences

    "00ed">Inequalities in Circles

    Terms and Definitions: Coordinate Geometry

    "0670">Abscissa

    "0671">Coordinate Axis

    "0672">Coordinate Plane

    "0673">Coordinates of a Point

    "0674">Intercept

    "0675">Linear Equation

    "0676">Locus (Plural: Loci)

    "0677">Number Line

    "0678">Ordered Pair

    "0679">Ordinate

    "067a">Origin

    "067b">Parallel

    "067c">Perpendicular

    "067d">Quadrants

    "067e">Slope

    "067f">X-Axis

    "0680">X-Coordinate

    "0681">Y-Axis

    "0682">Y-Coordinate

    Theorems

    T-1. Two nonvertical "0683">lines in the "0672">coordinate plane are"067c"> perpendicular if and only if the product of their "067e">slopes equals -1.

    T-2. Two nonvertical "0683">lines in the "0672">coordinate plane are "067b">parallel if and only if their "067e">slopes are equal.

    T-3. The point-slope form of the "0683">line in the "0672">coordinate plane passing through the "0684">point (x1,y1) with "067e">slope equal to m is the equation: y - y1 = m(x - x1).

    EXAMPLE: Find the equation of the line with slope -2 passing through the point (1,-3).

    Answer: You are given a point and a slope, so you use the point-slope formula.

    m = -2

    x1 = 1

    y1 = -3

    y - (-3) = -2 (x-1)

    or

    y + 3 = -2(x-1)

    T-4. The slope-intercept form of the "0683">line in the "0672">coordinate plane with "067e">slope m and "0674">y-intercept b is the equation: y = mx + b.

    EXAMPLE: Find the equation of the line with slope 5 and y-intercept -2.

    Answer: You are given the slope and the y-intercept, so you use the slope-intercept formula.

    m = 5

    b = -2

    y = 5x + (-2)

    or

    y = 5x - 2

    T-5. A "0683">line in the "0672">coordinate plane is horizontal if and only if its "067e">slope is 0.

    "0685"

    T-6. A "0683">line in the "0672">coordinate plane slopes up and to the right if and only if its "067e">slope is positive.

    "0686"

    T-7. A "0683">line in the "0672">coordinate plane slopes down and to the right if and only if its "067e">slope is negative.

    "0687"

    Postulates

    P-1. When both sides of an inequality are multiplied by the same positive number, the products are unequal in the same order. In other words, if c is a positive real number, then If a b then ac bc.If a > b then ac > bc.If a < b then ac < bc.

    P-2. When both sides of an inequality are multiplied by the same negative number, the products are unequal in the opposite order. In other words, if c is a negative real number, then If a b then ac bc.If a > b then ac < bc.If a < b then ac > bc.

    P-3. When a "0688">real number is added to both sides of an inequality, the sums are unequal in the same order. In other words, if c is a real number, then If a b then a + c b + c.If a > b then a + c > b + c.If a < b then a + c < b + c.

    P-4. When unequal quantities are added to unequal quantities in the same order, the sums are unequal in the same order. In other words, If a < b and c < d, then a + c < b + d.If a > b and c > d, then a + c > b + d.

    P-5. (Substitution Principle) A quantity can be exchanged for its equal in any inequality.

    P-6. A "0689">sum of positive quantities is greater than each of its "068a">terms.

    P-7. If a < b and b < c, then a < c.

    P-8. If a < b then b > a.

    P-9. (Uniqueness of Order Postulate) Given "0688">real numbers a and b, exactly one of the following inequalities holds. a = b, a < b or a > b

    Theorems

    T-1. When both sides of an inequality are divided by the same positive number, the quotients are unequal in the same order. In other words, if c is a positive real number, then If a b then a c b c.If a > b then a c > b c.If a < b then a c < b c.

    T-2. When both sides of an inequality are divided by the same negative number, the quotients are unequal in the opposite order. In other words, if c is a negative real number, then If a b then a c b c.If a > b then a c < b c.If a < b then a c > b c.

    T-3. When a "0688">real number is subtracted from both sides of an inequality, the differences are unequal in the same order. In other words, if c is a real number, then If a b then a - c b - c.If a > b then a - c > b - c.If a < b then a - c < b - c.

    T-4. When unequal quantities are subtracted from equal quantities, the difference is unequal in the reverse order. In other words, if c is a real number, then If a b then c - a c - b.If a > b then c - a < c - b.If a < b then c - a > c - b.

    T-5. If a > b and b > c, then a > c.

    T-6. If a + b = c and a > 0, then c > b.

    Terms and Definitions: Points, Lines, Angles, Planes and Space

    "068b">A-B

    "068c">C-D

    "068d">E-O

    "068e">P-R

    "068f">S-Z

    Theorems

    "00ee">Points and Lines

    "00ef">Points, Lines and Planes

    "00f0">Angles

    "00f1">Angles and Transversals

    "00f2">Congruences

    Postulates

    "00f3">Points and Lines

    "00f4">Points, Lines and Planes

    "00f5">Space

    "00f6">Angles

    Terms and Definitions: Polygons

    "0690">Altitude

    "0691">Angle

    "0692">Apothem

    "0693">Area

    "0694">Base

    "0695">Base Angles

    "0696">Congruent

    "0697">Consecutive Angles

    "0698">Consecutive Sides

    "0699">Consecutive Vertices

    "069a">Convex Polygon

    "069b">Corresponding Diagonals

    "069c">Corresponding Interior Angles

    "069d">Corresponding Sides

    "069e">Decagon

    "069f">Diagonal of a Polygon

    "06a0">Duodecagon

    "06a1">Endpoints

    "06a2">Equiangular Polygon

    "06a3">Equilateral Polygon

    "06a4">Exterior Angle

    "06a5">Hexagon

    "06a6">Inscribed

    "06a7">Interior Angle

    "06a8">Isosceles Trapezoid

    "06a9">Length (of a Line Segment)

    "06aa">Line Segment

    "06ab">Median

    "06ac">Midpoint of a Line Segment

    "06ad">Nonagon

    "06ae">Nonconsecutive Angles

    "06af">Nonconsecutive Sides

    "06b0">Nonconsecutive Vertices

    "06b1">Octagon

    "06b2">Parallelogram

    "06b3">Pentagon

    "06b4">Perimeter

    "06b5">Point

    "06b6">Polygon

    "06b7">Quadrilateral

    "06b8">Radius

    "06b9">Rectangle

    "06ba">Regular Polygon

    "06bb">Rhombus (Plural: Rhombi or Rhombuses)

    "06bc">Septagon

    "06bd">Side

    "06be">Similar Polygons

    "06bf">Square

    "06c0">Trapezoid

    "06c1">Vertex (Plural: Vertices)

    Postulates

    P-1. Given a polygonal region there exists a unique positive "0688">real number associated to the region. This real number is called the area of the region.

    P-2. If a region R consists of two regions R1 and R2 such that R1 and R2 intersect in at most a finite number of "06aa">line segments and points, then the area of R is the sum of the areas of R1 and R2.

    P-3. The area of a "06b9">rectangle is the product of lengths of two "0698">consecutive sides.

    Theorems and Corollaries

    "00f7">Parallelograms

    "00f8">Trapezoids

    "00f9">Rhombuses

    "00fa">Squares

    "00fb">Rectangles

    Terms and Definitions: Ratios

    "06c2">Cross-Product

    "06c3">Denominator

    "06c4">Extremes

    "06c5">Geometric Mean

    "06c6">Means

    "06c7">Numerator

    "06c8">Proportion

    "06c9">Proportional

    "06ca">Ratio

    Ratio: Theorems

    T-1. Given four nonzero real numbers a, b, c and d, ad = bc if and only if

    "06cb"

    T-2. Given a proportion

    "06cb"

    the numerators are equal if and only if the denominators are equal, that is, a = c if and only if b = d.

    T-3. Given two proportions

    "06cc"

    if any three proportionals of the first proportion are equal to the corresponding three proportionals of the second proportion, then the remaining proportional of the first proportion is equal to the remaining proportional of the second proportion.

    T-4.

    "06cd"

    Properties

    "00fc">Means-Extremes Property, or Cross-Products Property

    "00fd">Means or Extremes Switching Property

    "00fe">Upside- Down Property

    "00ff">Denominator Addition Property

    "0100">Denominator Subtraction Property

    Terms and Definitions: Reasoning, Proof, Defined & Undefined Terms

    "06ce">Antecedent

    "06cf">Axiom

    "06d0">Conclusion

    "06d1">Contrapositive

    "06d2">Converse

    "06d3">Corollary

    "06d4">Hypothesis

    "06d5">Hypothetical Implication

    "06d6">Implication

    "06d7">Inference

    "06d8">Inverse

    "06d9">Logic

    "06da">Logically Equivalent

    "06db">Necessary

    "06dc">Negation

    "06dd">Postulate

    "06de">Premise

    "06df">Proof

    "06e0">Proposition

    "06e1">Reasoning

    "06e2">Statement

    "06e3">Sufficient

    "06e4">Syllogism

    "06e5">Theorem

    Basic Principles

    BP-1. The "06d1">contrapositive of a true "06d5">hypothetical implication is true. The contrapositive of a false hypothetical implication is false.

    BP-2. When a given "06d5">hypothetical implication and its "06d2">converse are both true, the conditions in the "06d4">hypothesis of the given hypothetical implication are both "06db">necessary and "06e3">sufficient for the "06d0">conclusion, that is, the hypothesis and conclusion are "06da">logically equivalent.

    BP-3. When the "06d2">converse of a true "06d5">hypothetical implication is true, the "06d8">inverse is true. When the converse of a true hypothetical implication is false, the inverse is false.

    BP-4. When a "06d5">hypothetical implication and its "06d2">converse are both false, the hypothetical implication's "06d4">hypothesis is neither "06db">necessary nor "06e3">sufficient for the "06d0">conclusion.

    BP-5. When a "06d5">hypothetical implication is true but its "06d2">converse is false, the hypothetical implication's "06d4">hypothesis is "06e3">sufficient but not "06db">necessary for the "06d0">conclusion.

    BP-6. When a "06d5">hypothetical implication is false but its "06d2">converse is true, the hypothetical implication 's "06d4">hypothesis is "06db">necessary but not "06e3">sufficient for the "06d0">conclusion.

    BP-7. The "06d2">converse of a true "06d5">hypothetical implication is not necessarily true.

    BP-8. The "06d8">inverse of a true "06d5">hypothetical implication is not necessarily true.

    BP-9. (Law of Contradiction) A "06e2">statement can not be both true and false.

    BP-10. (Law of Excluded Middle) Any "06e2">statement is either true or false.

    BP-11. A "06e2">statement is false if one false instance of the statement exists.

    BP-12. In order for a theorem to be true it must be true for all cases.

    BP-13. The "06d2">converse of a definition is always true.

    Postulates

    P-1. A "06e2">statement contradicting a true statement is false.

    P-2. (Reflexive Law) A "06e2">statement is "06da">logically equivalent to itself..

    P-3. (Transitive Law) Given three "06e2">statements, if the first statement is "06da">logically equivalent to the second statement and the second statement is logically equivalent to the third statement, then the first statement is logically equivalent to the third statement.

    P-4. (Symmetric Law) Given two "06e2">statements, if the first statement is "06da">logically equivalent to the second statement, then the second statement is logically equivalent to the first statement.

    Terms and Definitions: Solids

    "06e6">Altitude

    "06e7">Base

    "06e8">Center

    "06e9">Closed Polyhedron (Plural: Closed Polyhedra)

    "06ea">Cone

    "06eb">Cube

    "06ec">Cylinder

    "06ed">Dodecahedron

    "06ee">Edge

    "06ef">Face

    "06f0">Hexahedron

    "06f1">Icosahedron

    "06f2">Lateral Area

    "06f3">Lateral Edge

    "06f4">Lateral Face

    "06f5">Oblique Prism

    "06f6">Octahedron

    "06f7">Platonic Solid

    "06f8">Prism

    "06f9">Pyramid

    "06fa">Radius

    "06fb">Regular Pyramid

    "06fc">Right Circular Cone

    "06fd">Right Circular Cylinder

    "06fe">Right Prism

    "06ff">Slant Height

    "0700">Solid

    "0701">Sphere

    "0702">Tetrahedron

    "0703">Total Area

    "0704">Vertex

    "0705">Volume

    Postulates

    P-1. The volume of a "06f8">prism whose "06e7">base is a rectangle is given by the following formula. (volume) = (area of a base) (length of an "06e6">altitude)

    "0706"

    P-2. (Cavalieri's Principle.) Given two "0700">solids and a plane, assume that for every plane that is parallel to the given plane and intersects the solids the areas of the two intersections are equal. Then the given solids have the same volume.

    Theorems

    T-1. The "06f2">lateral area of a "06fe">right prism is given by the following formula.

    (lateral area) = (perimeter of a <1>"06e7">base) (length of "06e6">altitude)

    "0707"

    T-2. The "0703">total area of a "06f8">prism is given by the following formula.

    (total area) = ("06f2">lateral area) + 2 (area of a "06e7">base)

    T-3. The volume of a "06fe">right prism is given by the following formula.

    (volume) = (area of a "06e7">base) (length of "06e6">altitude)

    "0707"

    T-4. The "06f2">lateral area of a "06fd">right circular cylinder is given by the following formula.

    (lateral area) = (circumference of a "06e7">base) (length of "06e6">altitude)

    "0708"

    T-5. The "0703">total area of a "06fd">right circular cylinder is given by the following formula.

    (total area) = ("06f2">lateral area) + 2 (area of a "06e7">base)

    T-6. The volume of a "06fd">right circular cylinder is given by the following formula.

    (volume) = (area of a "06e7">base) (length of "06e6">altitude)

    "0708"

    T-7. The "06f2">lateral area of a "06fb">regular pyramid is given by the following formula.

    (lateral area) = (perimeter of "06e7">base) ("06ff">slant height) 2

    "0709"

    Theorems

    T-8. The "0703">total area of a "06fb">regular pyramid is given by the following formula.

    (total area) = ("06f2">lateral area) + (area of "06e7">base)

    T-9. The volume of a "06fb">regular pyramid is given by the following formula.

    (volume) = (area of "06e7">base) (length of "06e6">altitude) 3

    "070a"

    T-10. The "06f2">lateral area of a "06fc">right circular cone is given by the following formula.

    (lateral area) = (radius of "06e7">base) ("06ff">slant height)

    "070b"

    T-11. The "0703">total area of a "06fc">right circular cone is given by the following formula.

    (total area) = (radius of "06e7">base) ("06ff">slant height) + (radius of base)2

    "070b"

    T-12. The volume of a "06fc">right circular cone is given by the following formula.

    (volume) = 2 (radius of "06e7">base) (length of "06e6">altitude) 3

    "070c"

    T-13. The surface area of a "0701">sphere is given by the following formula.

    (surface area) = 4 (radius)2

    "070d"

    T-14. The volume of a "0701">sphere is given by the following formula.

    (volume) = 4 (radius)3 3

    "070d"

    Terms and Definitions: Transformations

    "070e">Composition

    "070f">Deformation

    "0710">Dilation

    "0711">Enlargement

    "0712">Flip

    "0713">Glide

    "0714">Isometry

    "0715">Projection

    "0716">Reduction

    "0717">Reflection

    "0718">Rotation

    "0719">Transformation

    "071a">Translation

    "071b">Turn

    Basic Properties

    P-1. A "070e">composition of any two "070f">deformations is again a deformation.

    P-2. A composition of any two "0710">dilations is again a dilation.

    P-3. A composition of any two "0711">enlargements is again an enlargement.

    P-4. A composition of any two "0716">reductions is again a reduction.

    P-5. A composition of any two "071a">translations is again a translation.

    P-6. A composition of any two "0715">projections is again a projection.

    P-7. A composition of any two "0714">isometries is again an isometry.

    P-8. A composition of two "0717">reflections is not necessarily a reflection.

    P-9. A composition of two "0718">rotations is not necessarily a rotation.

    P-10. Any "0714">isometry of the "071c">coordinate plane is a "070e">composition of "071a">translations and "0717">reflections.

    Terms and Definitions: Triangles

    "071d">A-H

    "071e">I-P

    "071f">Q-Z

    Postulates

    P-1. (SAS Postulate) Given a one-to-one correspondence between the "0720">sides of two given "0721">triangles. If two sides of the first triangle and the "0722">angle formed by the two sides are "0723">congruent to the corresponding parts of the second triangle, then the triangles are congruent. (Note: See "0724">Corresponding Interior Angles and "0725">Corresponding Sides.)

    "0726"

    P-2. Given a "06b6">polygonal region there exists a unique positive "0688">real number associated to the region. This real number is called the area of the region.

    P-3. If two "0721">triangles are "0723">congruent, then the associated triangular regions have the same area.

    Theorems and Corollaries

    "0101">Angles and Triangles

    "0102">Applications of Congruent Triangles

    "0103">Areas of Triangles

    "0104">Congruent Triangles

    "0105">Inequalities in Triangles

    "0106">Isosceles and Equilateral Triangles

    "0107">Lines and Triangles

    "0108">Right Triangles

    "0109">Similar Triangles

    "010a">Trigonometric Formulas

    Decimal Equivalents of Common Fractions

    1/2 = .5000

    1/3 = .3333...

    1/4 = .2500

    1/5 = .2000

    1/6 = .1666...

    1/7 = .142857142857...

    1/8 = .1250

    1/9 = .1111...

    1/10 = .1000

    1/11 = .0909...

    1/12 = .0833

    1/16 = .0625

    1/32 = .03125

    1/64 = .015625

    2/3 = .666...

    2/5 = .4000

    2/7 = .285714285714...

    2/9 = .2222...

    2/11 = .1818...

    3/4 = .7500

    3/5 = .6000

    3/7 = .428571428571...

    3/8 = .3750

    3/10 = .3000

    3/11 = .2727...

    4/5 = .8000

    4/7 = .571428571428...

    4/9 = .4444...

    4/11 = .3636...

    5/6 = .8333...

    5/7 = .714285714285...

    5/8 = .6250

    5/9 = .5555...

    5/11 = .4545...

    5/12 = .4166...

    6/7 = .857142857142...

    6/11 = .5454...

    7/8 = .8750

    7/9 = .7777...

    7/10 = .7000

    7/11 = .6363...

    7/12 = .5833...

    8/9 = .8888...

    8/11 = .7272...

    9/10 = .9000

    9/11 = .8181...

    10/11 = .9090...

    11/12 = .9166...

    Fractions and Decimals <2> 4>

    Fraction

    Decimal

    Percent (%)

    1/16

    0.0625

    6.25

    1/8 = 2/16

    0.125

    12.5

    3/16

    0.1875

    18.75

    1/4 = 2/8 = 4/16

    0.25

    25.0

    5/16

    0.3125

    31.25

    1/3

    0.33

    33.33...

    3/8 = 6/16

    0.375

    37.5

    7/16

    0.4375

    43.75

    1/2 = 2/4 = 4/8 etc.

    0.5

    50.0

    9/16

    0.5625

    56.25

    5/8

    0.625

    62.5

    2/3

    0.66...

    66.66...

    11/16

    0.6875

    68.75

    3/4 = 6/8 = 12/16

    0.75

    75.0

    13/16

    0.8125

    81.25

    7/8 = 14/16

    0.875

    87.5

    15/16

    0.9375

    93.75

    1 = 2/2 = 4/4 etc.

    1.0

    100.0

    "0727">How to Convert<1> Multiplication Table <2> 2>

    "0728"

    Periods of Calendar Time

    Annual

    Yearly

    Biannual

    Twice a year (at unequally spaced intervals)

    Bicentennial

    Marking a period of 200 years

    Biennial

    Marking a period of two years

    Bimonthly

    Every two months; twice a month

    Biweekly

    Every two weeks; twice a week

    Centennial

    Marking a period of 100 years

    Decennial

    Marking a period of 10 years

    Diurnal

    Daily; of a day

    Duodecennial

    Marking a period of 12 years

    Millennial

    Marking a period of 1,000 years

    Novennial

    Marking a period of nine years

    Octennial

    Marking a period of eight years

    Perennial

    Continuing through the year; for a period of two or more years

    Quadrennial

    Marking a period of four years

    Quadricentennial

    Marking a period of 400 years

    Quincentennial

    Marking a period of 500 years

    Quindecennial

    Marking a period of 15 years

    Quinquennial

    Marking a period of five years

    Semiannual

    Every six months

    Semicentennial

    Marking a period of 50 years

    Semidiurnal

    Twice a day

    Semimonthly

    Twice a month

    Semiweekly

    Twice a week

    Septennial

    Marking a period of seven years

    Sesquicentennial

    Marking a period of 150 years

    Sexennial

    Marking a period of six years

    Thrice weekly

    Three times a week

    Tricennial

    Marking a period 30 years

    Trimonthly

    Every three months

    Triweekly

    Every three weeks; three times a week

    Undecennial

    Marking a period of 11 years

    Vicennial

    Marking a period of 20 years Place Value Chart

    Understanding place value causes some students (and their teachers) big-time headaches. Since the value of any digit depends on it's "place", understanding place value is an important skill. In the example below, 5 represents 5 ten thousands and also 5 ten-millionths. The digits are the same, but the values are quite different.

    "0729">Click here for an example of a place value chart.

    Prefixes and Multiples <2> 5>

    Prefix

    Suffix

    Multiple / sub-multiple

    atto

    a

    10-18

    femto

    f

    10-15

    pico

    p

    10-12

    nano

    n

    10-9

    micro

    10-6

    milli

    m

    10-3

    centi

    c

    10-2

    deci

    d

    10-1

    deca

    da

    10

    hecto

    h

    102

    kilo

    k

    103

    mega

    M

    106

    giga

    G

    109

    tera

    T

    1012

    peta

    P

    1015

    exa

    E

    1018 Prime Numbers Between 1 and 1,000

    2

    3

    5

    7

    11

    13

    17

    19

    23

    29

    31

    37

    41

    43

    47

    53

    59

    61

    67

    71

    73

    79

    83

    89

    97

    101

    103

    107

    109

    113

    127

    131

    137

    139

    149

    151

    157

    163

    167

    173

    179

    181

    191

    193

    197

    199

    211

    223

    227

    229

    233

    239

    241

    251

    257

    263

    269

    271

    277

    281

    283

    293

    307

    311

    313

    317

    331

    337

    347

    349

    353

    359

    367

    373

    379

    383

    389

    397

    401

    409

    419

    421

    431

    433

    439

    443

    449

    457

    461

    463

    467

    479

    487

    491

    499

    503

    509

    521

    523

    541

    547

    557

    563

    569

    571

    577

    587

    593

    599

    601

    607

    613

    617

    619

    631

    641

    643

    647

    653

    659

    661

    673

    677

    683

    691

    701

    709

    719

    727

    733

    739

    743

    751

    757

    761

    769

    773

    787

    797

    809

    811

    821

    823

    827

    829

    839

    853

    857

    859

    863

    877

    881

    883

    887

    907

    911

    919

    929

    937

    941

    947

    953

    967

    971

    977

    983

    991

    997 Properties of Integers

    Closure Property <1>Addition: A + B is an integer <1>Multiplication:AB is an integer

    Commutative Property <1>Addition: A + B = B + A <1>Multiplication: AB=BA

    Associative Property <1>Addition: (A + B) +C= A + (B + C) <1>Multiplication: (AB)C= A(BC)

    Identity Property <1>Addition: A + 0 = A <1>Multiplication: 1 (A) = A

    Inverse Property <1>Addition: A + -A = 0

    Multiplication Property of Zero <1>Multiplication: A(0)=0

    Distributive Property: A(B + C) = AB + BC

    Types of Decimals

    Decimal Equivalent of a Proper Fraction: a decimal fraction that equals a proper fraction. EXAMPLE: .75 = 3/4, .4 = 4/10

    Decimal Fraction: a number that has no digits other than zeros to the left of the decimal point. EXAMPLE: 0.349, .65, 0.5621

    Infinite (non-terminating) Decimal: a decimal with an unending number of nonzero digits to the right of the decimal point. EXAMPLES: 16.15231,

    Mixed Decimal: an integer and a decimal fraction. EXAMPLE: 7.431, 16.1, 265.7

    Nonperiodic (non-repeating) Decimal: decimals that are not repeating and not terminating. These decimals are irrational numbers. EXAMPLE:

    Periodic (repeating) Decimal: non-terminating decimals where the same digit or group of digits repeats. Every "072a">rational number can be written as a terminating or repeating decimal. NOTE: the repeating set is called the period or repetend. EXAMPLES: .33, .5252 ...

    Similar Decimals: decimals that have the same number of places to the right of the decimal point. EXAMPLE: 5.62 and .43, 27.1052 and 4.6531

    Terminating (finite) Decimals: a decimal that has a finite number of nonzero digits. EXAMPLES: .5, .3261, .912304

    Types of Fractions

    "010b">Complex Fraction

    "010c">Improper Fraction

    "010d">Integer Represented as a Fraction

    "010e">Mixed Number

    "010f">Proper Fraction

    "0110">Reciprocal

    "0111">Simple Fraction

    "0112">Unit Fraction

    Arcs and Central Angles

    T-1. The "0649">angular measure of a "066d">semicircle is 180o.

    T-2. Two "064c">arcs of a given circle are "0655">congruent if and only if they have the same length.

    Arcs and Inscribed Angles

    T-3. Given two "065d">inscribed angles of a given circle, their "065e">intercepted arcs are congruent if and only if the inscribed angles are congruent.

    "072b"

    T-4. The measure of an "065d">inscribed angle is half the "0649">angular measure of its "065e">intercepted arc.

    "072c"

    C-1. If the "065e">intercepted arc of an "065d">inscribed angle is a "066d">semicircle, then the measure of the inscribed angle is 90o.

    "072d"

    Angles made by Tangents, Secants or Chords

    T-5. If a "066e">tangent of a given circle meets a "064f">chord of the given circle at the "0666">point of tangency, the chord and the tangent are perpendicular if and only if the chord is a "0656">diameter.

    "072e"

    T-6. Given two "0668">secants of a given circle which intersect in the "0658">exterior of the circle, the measure of the angle they form is half the difference of the "0649">angular measures of the "065e">intercepted arcs.

    "072f"

    T-7. Given a "0668">secant and a "066e">tangent of a given circle which intersect at the "0666">point of tangency, the measure of the angle formed by the secant and the tangent is half the "0649">angular measure of the "065e">intercepted arc.

    "0730"

    Tangent Segments, Secant Segments and Chords

    T-8. Two "066c">segments of different tangent lines drawn from the same point in the "0658">exterior of the circle have the same length.

    "0731"

    T-9. Given a "066c">segment of a tangent of a given circle and a segment of a "0668">secant of the given circle whose exterior endpoint is the exterior endpoint of the tangent segment, the square of the length of the tangent segment is equal to the product of the length of the exterior portion of the segment of the secant with the length of the secant segment.

    "0732"

    a b = c2

    T-10. Given two "066b">segments of secants of a given circle whose "0658">exterior endpoints are the same, the product of the length of the exterior portion of the first secant with the length of the first secant segment is equal to the product of the length of the exterior portion of the second secant with the length of the second secant segment.

    "0733"

    a b = c d

    T-11. Given two "064f">chords of a given circle that intersect in the "065f">interior of the circle, the product of the lengths of the two pieces of the first chord is equal to the product of the two pieces of the second chord.

    "0734"

    a b = c d

    Arcs and Chords

    T-12. Given two "064f">chords of a given circle, the chords are congruent if and only if they have the same distance from the "064d">center of the circle.

    "0735"

    T-13. Given two "064f">chords of a given circle, the chords are congruent if and only if their corresponding "0664">minor arcs are congruent.

    "0736"

    T-14. Given a "0656">diameter of a circle and a "064f">chord of the circle, the diameter is perpendicular to the chord if and only if the diameter bisects the chord and its "064c">arcs.

    T-15. (Arc Length Proportion) Given an arc of a circle, the following formula holds.

    (length of the given "064c">arc) ("0651">circumference of the circle) = ("0649">angular measure of the given arc) 360

    C-2. The length of a "066d">semicircle is half the "0651">circumference of the circle.

    Area, Arc Lengths and Circumferences

    T-16. Given two circles, the ratio of the "0651">circumference of the first circle to the "0656">diameter of the first circle is equal to the ratio of the circumference of the second circle to the diameter of the second circle. This common ratio is denoted by the Greek letter ("0665">pi).

    T-17. The area of a circle is given by the following formula. (Note: See "0665">pi.)

    (area) = ("0667">radius)2

    T-18. (Area of a Sector Proportion) Given a "0669">sector of a circle the following formula holds.

    (area of the sector) (area of the circle) = ("064b">angular measure of the arc of the sector) 360

    C-3. The "0651">circumference of a circle is given by the following formula. (Note: See "0665">pi.)

    (circumference) = 2 ("0667">radius)

    Inequalities in Circles

    T-19. Given "0655">congruent circles and two non-congruent arcs, the longer arc has the greater "0649">angular measure.

    "0737"

    T-20. Given "0655">congruent circles and two non-congruent "064f">chords, the longer chord is closer to the "064d">center of the circle.

    "0738"

    Points and Lines: Theorems

    T-1. Given three distinct "0683">lines, assume that the first line is "067b">parallel to the second line and that the second line is parallel to the third line. Then the first line is parallel to the third line.

    T-2. Two distinct lines are "067b">parallel if and only if every two "0684">points of the first line are the same "0739">distance from the second line.

    "073a"

    T-3. A given "073b">line segment has exactly one "073c">midpoint.

    T-4. Given a "0683">line and a "0684">point that is not on the line, there is a unique line containing the given point which is "073d">perpendicular to the given line.

    "073e"

    T-5. Given three "0684">points P, Q and R on a "0683">line, if Q is "073f">between P and R, then the "0740">length of the "073b">line segment PR is the sum of the lengths of the segments PQ and QR.

    T-6. The shortest path between two "0684">points is a straight "0683">line.

    T-7. Two distinct, "067b">nonparallel lines in a given "0741">plane intersect at exactly one "0684">point.

    T-8. Given a "073b">line segment AB and two distinct "0684">points C and D such that the points A, B, C and D are "0742">coplanar and the distances AC = BC and AD = BD, then the "0683">line CD is the "0743">perpendicular bisector of the line segment AB.

    "0744"

    T-9. Given a "073b">line segment AB and any "0684">point C on a "0743">perpendicular bisector of the given line segment, the distance AC = BC.

    "0745"

    T-10. Given two "067b">parallel lines and a third distinct "0683">line such that the three lines all lie in the same "0741">plane, the third line intersects the first line if and only if the third line intersects the second line.

    Points, Lines and Planes: Theorems

    T-11. Given two distinct "0683">lines which "0746">intersect, there is exactly one "0741">plane which contains both given lines.

    T-12. Given a "0683">line and a "0684">point not contained in the line, there is a unique "0741">plane which contains the given line and the given point.

    T-13. Given three distinct "0741">planes, if the first plane is "0747">parallel to the second plane and the second plane is parallel to the third plane, then the first plane is parallel to the third plane.

    Angles: Theorems

    T-14. "0748">Complements of "0749">congruent angles are congruent.

    T-15. "074a">Supplements of "0749">congruent angles are congruent.

    T-16. "074b">Vertical angles are "0749">congruent.

    T-17. Two "0749">congruent angles that are "074a">supplementary to each other are "074c">right angles.

    T-18. Two "074d">adjacent angles are "074a">supplementary if and only if their "074e">exterior sides form a "074f">straight angle.

    T-19. Two "074d">adjacent angles are "0748">complementary if and only if their "074e">exterior sides form a "074c">right angles.

    T-20. A given "0750">angle has exactly one "0751">bisector.

    T-21. If two "0683">lines "0746">intersect and one of the "0750">angles they form is a "074c">right angle, then all four angles they form are "074c">right angles.

    Angles and Transversals: Theorems

    T-22. If two "067b">parallel lines are cut by a "0752">transversal, every pair of "0750">angles created form either a "074a">supplementary pair or a "0749">congruent pair of angles.

    T-23. Assume that two "0683">lines are cut by a "0752">transversal. Then the lines are "067b">parallel if and only if the "0753">alternate interior angles are "0749">congruent.

    T-24. Assume that two "0683">lines are cut by a "0752">transversal. Then the lines are "067b">parallel if and only if the "0754">alternate exterior angles are "0749">congruent.

    T-25. Assume that two "0683">lines are cut by a "0752">transversal. Then the lines are "067b">parallel if and only if the "0755">consecutive interior angles are "074a">supplementary.

    T-26. Assume that two "0683">lines are cut by a "0752">transversal. Then the lines are "067b">parallel if and only if the "0756">consecutive exterior angles are "074a">supplementary.

    T-27. Assume that two "0683">lines are cut by a "0752">transversal. Then the lines are "067b">parallel if and only if the "0757">corresponding angles are "0749">congruent.

    T-28. Assume that two "0683">lines are cut by a "0752">transversal. The transversal is "067c">perpendicular to one of the lines if and only if the transversal is perpendicular to the second line.

    Congruencies: Theorems

    T-29. Any geometric figure is "0749">congruent to itself.

    T-30. Given any three geometric figures, if the first figure is "0749">congruent to the second figure and the second figure is congruent to the third figure, then the first figure is congruent to the third figure.

    T-31. Given any two geometric figures, if the first figure is "0749">congruent to the second figure, then the second figure is congruent to the first figure.

    Points and Lines: Postulates

    P-1. Given two distinct "0684">points, there is exactly one "0683">line that contains the given points.

    P-2. (Distance Postulate) Given two distinct "0684">points, there is a unique, positive "0688">real number (called the distance between the two points) associated to the pair.

    P-3. (Ruler Postulate) The "0684">points of a "0683">line can be placed in one-to-one correspondence with the set of "0688">real number so that the distance between two distinct points on the line is exactly the "0758">absolute value of the difference of the associated real numbers.

    P-4. (Ruler Placement Postulate) Given two distinct "0684">points A and B on a "0683">line, the points of the line can be placed in one-to-one correspondence with the set of "0688">real number (as in the Ruler Postulate) so that the real number associated to A is 0 and the real number associated to B is the distance between A and B (and is therefore positive).

    Points, Lines and Planes: Postulates

    P-5. A "0741">plane contains at least three "0759">noncollinear points. Space contains at least four "075a">noncoplanar points.

    P-6. (Points-in-a-Plane Postulate) If two distinct "0684">points of a "0683">line lie in a given "0741">plane, then the line lies entirely in the plane.

    P-7. Given three distinct "0684">points, there is at least one "0741">plane containing the given points. Given three "0759">noncollinear points, there is exactly one plane containing the given points.

    P-8. Given two distinct "0741">planes which intersect, the intersection of the given planes is a "0683">line.

    "075b"

    P-9. (Plane Separation Postulate) Given a "0741">plane and a "0683">line in the plane, the "075c">complement of the line in the plane consists of two sets H1 and H2 satisfying the following properties.

    H1 and H2 have no "0684">points in common.Given two distinct points A and B of H1 , the "073b">line segment AB lies entirely in the set H1.Given two distinct points A and B of H2 , the line segment AB lies entirely in the set H2.Given a point A of H1 and a point B of H2 , the line segment AB "0746">intersects the given line.

    "075d"

    Space Postulate

    P-10. (Space Separation Postulate) Given a "0741">plane, the "075c">complement of the plane in space consists of two sets H1 and H2 satisfying the following properties. H1 and H2 have no "0684">points in common.Given two distinct points A and B of H1 , the "073b">line segment AB lies entirely in the set H1.Given two distinct points A and B of H2 , the line segment AB lies entirely in the set H2.Given a point A of H1 and a point B of H2 , the line segment AB intersects the given plane.

    "075e"<1>"075f"<1>"0760" Angles Postulates

    P-11. (Protractor Postulate) Given an "0750">angle there is a unique "0688">real number between 0 and 180 (called the measure of the angle) associated to the angle.

    P-12. (Angle Construction Postulate) Given a "0761">ray AB on the edge of a "0762">half-plane H and a real number r between 0 and 180, there is a unique ray AC such that C is in H and the "0750">angle CAB has measure equal to r.

    P-13. (Angle Addition Postulate) Given an "0750">angle ABC and a "0684">point D in the "0763">interior of the given angle, the measure of the angle ABC is the sum of the measures of the angles ABD and DBC.

    P-14. (Supplement Postulate) Given two "074d">adjacent angles, if the "0750">angles form a "0764">linear pair, then the angles are "074a">supplementary.

    P-15. (Parallel Postulate) Given a "0683">line and a "0684">point that is not on the line, there is a unique line containing the given point which is "067b">parallel to the given line.

    "0765"

    Parallelograms

    T-1. A "06b7">quadrilateral is a<1>"06b2">parallelogram if and only if its<1>"069f">diagonals bisect one another.

    "0766"

    T-2. A "06b7">quadrilateral is a<1>"06b2">parallelogram if and only both pairs<1>of "06ae">nonconsecutive angles are<1>"0696">congruent.

    "0767"

    T-3. A "06b7">quadrilateral is a<1>"06b2">parallelogram if and only if both pairs<1>of "06af">nonconsecutive sides are<1>"0696">congruent.

    "0768"

    T-4. A "06b7">quadrilateral is a<1>"06b2">parallelogram if and only if two<1>"06af">nonconsecutive sides are both<1>"0696">congruent and parallel.

    "0769"

    T-5. A "06b7">quadrilateral is a<1>"06b2">parallelogram if and only if two<1>"06ae">nonconsecutive angles are "0696">congruent<1> and two "06af">nonconsecutive sides are<1>congruent.

    "076a"

    T-6. A "06b7">quadrilateral is a<1>"06b2">parallelogram if and only if two<1>"06ae">nonconsecutive angles are "0696">congruent<1>and two "06af">nonconsecutive sides are parallel.

    "076b"

    T-7. A "06b2">parallelogram divided by a<1>"069f">diagonal creates two "0696">congruent<1>triangles.

    "076c"

    T-8. "0697">Consecutive angles of a<1>"06b2">parallelogram are "074a">supplementary.

    "076d"

    T-9. The area of a "06b2">parallelogram is<1>given by the following formula. (area)<1>= (length of "0694">base) (length of "0690">altitude<1>)

    "076e"

    Trapezoids

    T-10. A "06c0">trapezoid is "06a8">isosceles if and only if its "069f">diagonals are "0696">congruent.

    "076f"

    T-11. A "06c0">trapezoid is "06a8">isosceles if and only if two "06ae">nonconsecutive angles are "074a">supplementary.

    "0770"

    T-12. A "06c0">trapezoid is "06a8">isosceles if and only if two "0695">base angles are "0696">congruent.

    "0771"

    T-13. The "06ab">median of a "06c0">trapezoid is parallel to the "0694">bases and has measure equal to one half the sum of the lengths of the bases.

    "0772"

    T-14. The area of a "06c0">trapezoid is given by the following formulas.

    1. (area) = (length of "0690">altitude) [(length of first "0694">base) + (length of second base)] 2

    2. (area) = (length of altitude) (length of "06ab">median)

    "0773"

    Rhombuses

    T-15. A "06b7">quadrilateral is a "06bb">rhombus if and only if its "06bd">sides are all "0696">congruent.

    "0774"

    T-14. A "06bb">parallelogram is a "06bb">rhombus if and only if the "069f">diagonals are perpendicular.

    "0775"

    T-15. A "06b2">parallelogram is a "06bb">rhombus if and only if either "069f">diagonal bisects the "06a7">interior angles whose "06c1">vertices are the endpoints of the diagonal.

    "0776"

    T-16. A "06b2">parallelogram is a "06bb">rhombus if and only if each "069f">diagonal bisects the "06a7">interior angles whose "06c1">vertices are the endpoints of the diagonal.

    "0777"

    Squares

    T-17. A "06bb">rhombus is a "06bf">square if and only if one of its "06a7">interior angles is a right angle.

    "0778"

    T-18. A "06b9">rectangle is a "06bf">square if and only if it is "06a3">equilateral.

    "0779"

    T-19. Every "06bf">square is a "06b2">parallelogram and a "06b9">rectangle.

    T-20. The length of a "069f">diagonal of a "06bf">square is given by the following formula.

    "077a"

    "077b"

    Rectangles

    T-21. A "06b2">parallelogram is a "06b9">rectangle if and only if its "069f">diagonals are "0696">congruent.

    "077c"

    T-22. A "06b7">quadrilateral is a "06b9">rectangle if and only if all four "06a7">interior angles are right angles.

    "077d"

    T-23. If a given "06b2">parallelogram is "06a6">inscribed within a circle, the parallelogram is a "06b9">rectangle.

    "077e"

    Means-Extremes Property, or Cross-Products Property

    In a given proportion, the cross-products are equal. In other words, if

    "06cb"

    then ad = bc.

    Means or Extremes Switching Property

    "077f"

    Upside- Down Property

    "0780"

    Denominator Addition Property

    "0781"

    Denominator Subtraction Property

    "0782"

    Angles and Triangles

    T-1. Every "0783">interior angle of a "0721">triangle has a unique "0784">bisector.

    T-2. The sum of the measures of the "0783">interior angles of a "0721">triangle equals 180.

    T-3. A given "0721">triangle can have at most one "074c">right or "0785">obtuse angle.

    T-4. Two "0720">sides of a given "0721">triangle are "0723">congruent if and only if the "0722">angles opposite those sides are "0723">congruent.

    T-5. When two "0783">interior angles of a given "0721">triangle are "0723">congruent to two "0786">corresponding interior angles of a second triangle, their third corresponding interior angles are also congruent.

    T-6. The measure of a given "0787">exterior angle of a "0721">triangle is equal to the sum of the measures of the two "0783">interior angles which are not "0788">adjacent to the given exterior angle.

    T-7. The sum of the measures of the "0787">exterior angle of a "0721">triangle, taking one angle at each "0789">vertex, equals 360.

    Applications of Congruent Triangles

    T-61. Given a "0721">triangle and a "078a">point in the "0763">interior of a given angle, the given point is equidistant from the "0720">sides of the given angle if and only if the given point lies on the "078b">bisector of the given angle.

    T-62. Given a "0721">triangle and a "078a">point, the given point is on the "078c">perpendicular bisector of a given "0720">side if and only if the point is equidistant from the "078d">endpoints of the given side.

    T-63. The shortest distance from a "078a">point to a "0683">line is given by the "073d">perpendicular "073b">segment from the point to the line.

    T-64. The shortest distance from a "0684">point to a "0741">plane is given by the "073d">perpendicular "073b">segment from the point to the plane.

    Area of Triangle

    T-32. The area of an "078e">equilateral triangle is given by the formula

    "078f"

    where A is the measure of an "0790">altitude of the "0721">triangle.

    T-33. The area of an "078e">equilateral triangle is given by the formula

    "0791"

    where a is the measure of a "0720">side of the "0721">triangle.

    T-34. The area of a "0721">triangle is given by the formula

    "0792"

    where a and b are the lengths of two "0720">sides and C is the measure of the angle formed by the given sides. (NOTE: See "0793">Trigonometric Ratio.)

    T-35. The area of a "0721">triangle is given by the formula

    "0794"

    where b is the length of a "0720">side of the triangle and h is the length of the "0790">altitude which is "073d">perpendicular to the given side.

    T-36. A "0795">median drawn to one "0720">side of a "0721">triangle divides the given triangle into two triangles of the same area.

    "0796"

    T-37. "0721">Triangles that share a common "0720">side and have "0789">vertices on a line parallel to the given side have equal areas.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure

    "0797"

    triangles ABC and ABD have the same area.

    T-38. The area of a "0798">right triangle is given by the formula

    "0799"

    where a and b are the lengths of the "079a">legs of the triangle.

    T-39. Given two "0721">triangles with a pair of "0723">congruent "0720">sides, the "079b">ratio of the areas of the given triangles is equal to the ratio of the lengths of the "0790">altitudes which are "073d">perpendicular to the given sides.

    T-40. Given two "0721">triangles with a pair of "0723">congruent "0790">altitudes, the "079b">ratio of the areas of the given triangles is equal to the ratio of the lengths of the "0720">sides which are "073d">perpendicular to the given altitudes.

    Congruent Triangles

    T-55. Any "0721">triangle is "0723">congruent to itself.

    T-56. If one "0721">triangle is "0723">congruent to a second triangle, then the second triangle is congruent to the first.

    T-57. If one "0721">triangle is "0723">congruent to a second triangle and the second triangle is congruent to a third triangle, then the first triangle is congruent to the third triangle.

    T-58. (AAS Theorem) Given two "0721">triangles, if two of the "0783">interior angles and a "079c">non-included side of the first triangle are "0723">congruent to the "0786">corresponding two angles and "0725">side of the second triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.

    T-59. (SSS Congruence Theorem) Given two "0721">triangles, if the "0720">sides of the first triangle are congruent to the "0725">corresponding sides of the second triangle, then the triangles are congruent.

    T-60. (ASA Congruence Theorem) Given two "0721">triangles, if two "0783">interior angles and the included side of the first triangle are congruent to the "0786">corresponding angles and included "0725">side of the second triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.

    Inequalities in Triangles

    T-28. Given a "0721">triangle with two "0783">interior angles which are not "0723">congruent, the "079d">sides opposite the given angles are not congruent and the longer side lies opposite the greater angle.

    "079e"

    T-29. Given a "0721">triangle with two "0720">sides which are not "0723">congruent, the "0783">interior angles opposite the given sides are not congruent and the longer side lies opposite the greater angle.

    "079e"

    T-30. The sum of the lengths of two "0720">sides of a "0721">triangle is greater than the length of the third side.

    T-31. Given two "0721">triangles such that two "0720">sides of the first triangle are "0723">congruent to two sides of the second triangle, the third side of the first triangle is longer than the third side of the second triangle if and only if the angle opposite the third side of the first triangle is greater than the angle opposite the third side of the second triangle.

    "079f"

    C-2. The measure of an "0787">exterior angle of a "0721">triangle is greater than the measure of either of the "0783">interior angles which are not adjacent to the given exterior angle.

    "07a0"

    Isosceles and Equilateral Triangles

    T-53. Given an "07a1">isosceles triangle, the "073b">line segments which "0784">bisect the "07a2">base angles and have "078d">endpoints on the "079d">sides opposite the base angles are "0723">congruent.

    "07a3"

    T-54. The "0784">bisector of the "07a4">vertex angle of an "07a1">isosceles triangle is the "078c">perpendicular bisector of the "07a5">base of the triangle.

    "07a6"

    C-4. A triangle is "078e">equilateral if and only if it is "07a7">equiangular.

    C-5. Every "0783">interior angle of an "07a7">equiangular triangle has measure 60.

    C-6. The "07a2">base angles of an "07a1">isosceles triangle are "0723">congruent.

    "07a8"

    Lines and Triangles

    T-8. The "07a9">midline of a "0721">triangle is "067b">parallel to the third "0720">side of the triangle.

    EXAMPLE: The line AB is parallel to midline DE.

    "07aa"

    T-9. The "07a9">midline of a "0721">triangle is half as long as the third "0720">side of the triangle.

    "07aa"

    T-10. Given a "0683">line which is "067b">parallel to one "0720">side of a given "0721">triangle and "07ab">bisects a second side of the triangle, the given line also bisects the third side of the triangle.

    "07aa"

    T-11. The three "0683">lines containing the "0790">altitudes of a "0721">triangle "0746">intersect at a unique "0684">point called the ""07ac">orthocenter" of the triangle.

    "07ad"

    T-12. The "0784">angle bisectors of a "0721">triangle "0746">intersect at a unique "0684">point that is equidistant from any "0720">side of the triangle. The common point of intersection is called the <1>""07ae">incenter" of the triangle.

    "07af"

    T-13. The "0795">medians of a "0721">triangle "0746">intersect at a unique "0684">point which is two-thirds the distance from any "0789">vertex to the "07b0">midpoint of the "07b1">opposite side.

    "07b2"

    T-14. The "078c">perpendicular bisectors of the "0720">sides of a "0721">triangle "0746">intersect at a unique "0684">point that is equidistant from any "0789">vertex of the triangle.

    "07b3"

    T-15. In a given "0721">triangle the product of the length of one "0720">side and the length of the "0790">altitude drawn to that side is equal to the product of the length of a second side with the length of the altitude drawn to the second side.

    "07b4"

    Right Triangles

    T-43. (Pythagorean Theorem) In a "0798">right triangle, let a and b denote the lengths of the "079a">legs and let c denote the length of the "07b5">hypotenuse. Then the following formula holds.

    a2 + b2 = c2

    T-44. If a "0721">triangle has "0720">sides of length a, b and c such that a2 + b2 = c2 then the triangle is a "0798">right triangle where the sides of length a and b are the "079a">legs, and the side of length c is the "07b5">hypotenuse.

    T-45. The length of the "0795">median to the "07b5">hypotenuse of a "0798">right triangle is one half the length of the hypotenuse.

    T-46. In an "07a1">isosceles "0798">right triangle where the "07a4">vertex angle measures 90 and the base angles each measure 45, the following formula holds:

    "07b6"

    where c denotes the length of the hypotenuse and a denotes the length of one of the legs.

    T-47. In a triangle whose "0783">interior angles measure 30, 60 and 90, respectively, (such a triangle is called a "30-60-90 triangle) the following formulas hold:

    "07b7"

    where a is the length of the "079d">side opposite the 30-angle, b is the length of the side opposite the 60-angle and c is the length of the "07b5">hypotenuse.

    T-48. The "07a2">base angles of an "07a1">isosceles "0798">right triangle measure 45 each.

    T-49. (LL Theorem) Given two right triangles, if the "079a">legs of the first right triangle are "0723">congruent to the "0725">corresponding legs of the second "0798">right triangle, then the triangles are "0723">congruent.

    T-50. (HA Theorem) Given two "0798">right triangles, if the "07b5">hypotenuse and one acute angle of the first triangle are "0723">congruent to the hypotenuse and "0786">corresponding acute angle of the second triangle, then the triangles are congruent.

    T-51. (HL Theorem) Given two "0798">right triangles, if the "07b5">hypotenuse and one "079a">leg of the first triangle are "0723">congruent to the hypotenuse and "0786">corresponding leg of the second triangle, then the triangles are congruent.

    T-52. (LA Theorem) Given two "0798">right triangles, if one "079a">leg and one acute angle of the first triangle are "0723">congruent to the "0786">corresponding leg and acute angle of the second triangle, then the triangles are congruent.

    C-3. The acute angles of a "0798">right triangle are "0748">complementary.

    Similar Triangles

    T-16. Any "0721">triangle is "07b8">similar to itself.

    T-17. If one "0721">triangle is "07b8">similar to a second triangle, then the second triangle is similar to the first triangle.

    T-18. If one "0721">triangle is "07b8">similar to a second triangle and the second triangle is similar to a third triangle, then the first triangle is similar to the third triangle.

    T-19. If two "0721">triangles are "0723">congruent then the triangles are "07b8">similar.

    T-20. (SSS Similarity Theorem) When the three "0720">sides of one "0721">triangle are in proportion to the three "0725">corresponding sides of a second triangle, the two triangles are "07b8">similar.

    T-21. (SAS Similarity Theorem) When two "0720">sides of one "0721">triangle are in proportion to two sides of a second triangle and the "0722">angles made by the given sides are "0723">congruent, the two triangles are "07b8">similar.

    T-22. (AAA Similarity Theorem) When the three "0722">angles of one "0721">triangle are "0723">congruent to the three "0724">corresponding interior angles of a second triangle, the two triangles are "07b8">similar.

    T-23. The "07b9">ratio of similitude of any pair of "07b8">similar triangles equals the "07ba">square root of the "079b">ratio of their areas.

    T-24. Given two "07b8">similar triangles, the measures of corresponding "0790">altitudes have the same "079b">ratio as the measures of any two "0725">corresponding sides of the "0721">triangles.

    T-25. Given two "07b8">similar triangles, the "07bb">perimeters of the "0721">triangles have the same "079b">ratio as the measures of any two "0725">corresponding sides of the triangles.

    T-26. If each pair of "0725">corresponding sides of two "0721">triangles are "073d">perpendicular to each other, the triangles are "07b8">similar.

    T-27. Given a "0721">triangle and a "0683">line, if the line is "067b">parallel to one "0720">side of the triangle and "0746">intersects the other two sides, then the line cuts off a triangle which is "07b8">similar to the given triangle.

    "07bc"

    C-1. If two "0783">interior angles of one "0721">triangle are "0723">congruent to two interior angles of a second triangle, then the two triangles are "07b8">similar.

    Trigonometric Formulas

    T-41. (Law of Cosines) Let "0721">triangle ABC be any triangle with a, b and c representing the lengths of the sides opposite the "0783">interior angles with measures A, B and C, respectively. Then the following formulas hold. <1>a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc cos(A) <1>b2 = a2 + c2 - 2ac cos(B) <1>c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos(C)

    (NOTE: See "0793">Trigonometric Ratio.)

    T-42. (Law of Sines) Let "0721">triangle ABC be any triangle with a, b and c representing the lengths of the sides opposite the "0783">interior angles with measures A, B and C, respectively. Then the following formulas hold.

    "07bd"

    (NOTE: See "0793">Trigonometric Ratio.)

    Complex Fraction

    A complex fraction is a "07be">rational expression (fraction) whose top or bottom (or both) contains a fraction.

    EXAMPLE:

    "07bf"

    Improper Fraction

    An improper fraction is a fraction whose numerator (top) is greater than its denominator (bottom).

    EXAMPLE: The fraction 7/3 is an improper fraction.

    Integer Represented as Fraction

    An integer represented as a "07c0">fraction is a fraction whose "07c1">denominator is 1.

    EXAMPLE: The fractions 2/1 and -3/1 are integers represented as fractions.

    Mixed Number

    A mixed number is a number containing both an "07c2">integer and a "07c0">fraction.

    EXAMPLE: The number

    "07c3"

    is a mixed number that represents the quantity 5+(1/5).

    Proper Fraction

    A proper fraction is a "07c0">fraction whose "07c4">numerator is smaller than its "07c1">denominator.

    EXAMPLE: The fractions 2/3 and 32/79 are proper fractions.

    Reciprocal

    Given the "07c0">fraction a/b, the reciprocal is b/a.

    Simple Fraction

    A simple fraction is a "07c0">fraction whose "07c4">numerator and "07c1">denominator are both "07c2">integers.

    EXAMPLE: The fractions 2/3 and -4/7 are simple fractions.

    Unit Fraction

    A unit fraction is a "07c0">fraction whose "07c4">numerator is 1.

    EXAMPLE: The fractions 1/2 and 1/3 are unit fractions.

    Conversion Factors

    "07c5">A-D

    "07c6">E-K

    "07c7">L-P

    "07c8">P-Z

    Ancient Measures

    BIBLICAL:

    1 cubit = 21.8 inches

    1 omer = 0.45 peck

    1 omer = 3.964 liters

    1 eplah = 10 omers

    1 shekel = 0.497 ounce

    1 shekel = 14.1 grams

    GREEK:

    1 cubit = 18.3 inches

    1 stadion = 607.2 or 622 feet

    1 oboos = 715.38 milligrams

    1 drachma = 4.2923 grams

    1 mina = 0.9463 pounds

    1 talent = 60 mina

    ROMAN:

    1 cubit = 17.5 inches

    1 stadium = 202 yards

    1 as. libra = 325.971 grams

    1 pondus = 0.71864 pounds

    Apothecaries' Weights

    The system of Apothecaries' Weight is a system of measurement used mainly by pharmacists.

    1 grain (gr) = 0.0648 grams

    1 scruple (s ap) = 20 grains

    1 scruple (s ap) = 1.296 grams

    1 dram (dr ap) = 3 scruples

    1 dram (dr ap) = 3.888 grams

    1 ounce (oz ap) = 8 drams

    1 ounce (oz ap) = 31.103 grams

    1 pound (lb ap) = 12 ounces

    1 pound (lb ap) = 0.373 kilogram

    Avoirdupois Weights

    The system of Avoirdupois Weights is the "standard" system of weights used in the United States.

    1 grain (gr) = 0.0648 gram

    1 dram (dr) = 27.344 grains

    1 dram (dr) = 1.772 grams

    1 ounce (oz) = 16 drams

    1 ounce (oz) = 28.350 grams

    1 pound (lb or #) = 16 ounces

    1 pound (lb or #) = 0.454 kilograms

    1 (short) hundredweight (cwt) = 100 pounds

    1 (short) hundredweight (cwt) = 45.359 kilograms

    1 long hundredweight = 112 pounds

    1 long hundredweight = 50.802 kilograms

    1 (short) ton = 20 hundredweight

    1 (short) ton = 2000 pounds

    1 (short) ton = 0.907 metric tons

    1 long ton = 20 long hundredweight

    1 long ton =2240 pounds

    1 long ton = 1.016 metric tons

    Circular Measures

    1 minute (') = 60 seconds

    1 degree (o) = 60 minutes

    1 circumference = 360 degrees

    1 degree of the Earth's surface on a meridian = 69.16 miles

    Cubic Measures

    1 cubic inch (cu in) = 16.387 cubic centimeters

    1 cubic foot (cu ft) = 1728 cubic inches

    1 cubic foot (cu ft) = 0.028 cubic meters

    1 cubic yard (cu yd) = 27 cubic feet

    1 cubic yard (cu yd) = 0.765 cubic meters

    1 cubic centimeter (cm3) = 0.061 cubic inches

    1 cubic meter (m3) = 1,000,000 cubic centimeters

    1 cubic meter (m3) = 1.307 cubic yards

    1 cord = 128 cubic feet

    (Note: A cord of wood is a pile 8 feet long, 4 feet wide and 4 feet high.)

    1 perch = 24.75 cubic feet

    (Note: A perch of stone or bricks is a pile 16.5 feet long, 1.5 feet wide and 1 foot high.)

    Dry Measures

    1 pint (pt) = 0.551 liters

    1 quart (qt) = 2 pints

    1 quart (qt) = 1.101 liters

    1 peck (pk) = 8 quarts

    1 peck (pk) = 8.810 liters

    1 bushel (bu) = 4 pecks

    1 bushel (bu) = 35.239 liters

    1 liter (l) = 0.908 quart

    Linear Measures

    1 inch (in) = 2.54 centimeters

    1 foot (ft) = 12 inches

    1 foot (ft) = 30.48 centimeters

    1 yard (yd) = 3 feet

    1 yard (yd) = 0.9144 meter

    1 rod (rd) = 5.5 yards

    1 rod (rd) = 16.5 feet

    1 rod (rd) = 5.029 meters

    1 mile (mi) = 320 rods

    1 mile (mi) = 1760 yards

    1 mile (mi) = 5280 feet

    1 mile (mi) = 1.609 kilometers

    1 centimeter (cm) = 0.39 inch

    1 meter (m) = 100 centimeters

    1 meter (m) = 39.37 inches

    1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters

    1 kilometer (km) = 0.62 miles

    Liquid Measures

    1 fluidounce (fl oz) = 29.573 milliliters

    1 gill (gi) = 4 fluid ounces

    1 gill (gi) = 118.294 milliliters

    1 pint (pt) = 4 gills

    1 pint (pt) = 0.437 liters

    1 quart (qt) = 2 pints

    1 quart (qt) = 0.946 liters

    1 gallon (gal) = 4 quarts

    1 gallon (gal) = 3.785 liters

    1 barrel [of petrolium] = 42 gallons

    1 barrel [of fermented beverage] = 31.5 gallons

    1 hogshead = 63 gallons

    1 milliliter (ml) = 0.03375 fluidounce

    1 liter (l) = 1000 milliliters

    1 liter (l) = 1.057 quarts

    Metric Weights

    (All US weight conversions are given in "0116">Avoirdupois Weights.)

    1 gram (g) = 0.035 ounces

    1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams

    1 kilogram (kg) = 2.2046 pounds

    1 metric ton (t) = 1000 kilograms

    1 metric ton (t) = 1.102 tons

    Nautical Measures

    1 nautical mile = 6076 feet

    1 nautical mile = 1.151 miles

    1 nautical mile = 1.852 kilometers

    1 cable = 0.1 nautical mile

    1 cable = 0.151 mile

    1 cable = 185.2 meters

    1 fathom = 6 feet

    1 fathom = 1.83 meters

    Paper Measures

    1 quire = 24 sheets

    1 ream = 20 quires

    1 bale = 10 reams

    Surface Measures

    1 square inch (sq in) = 6.452 square centimeters

    1 square foot (sq ft) = 144 square inches

    1 square foot (sq ft) = 0.093 square meter

    1 square yard (sq yd) = 9 square feet

    1 square yard (sq yd) = 0.836 square meter

    1 square rod (sq rd) = 30.25 square yards

    1 square rod (sq rd) = 25.293 square meters

    1 acre = 4820 square yards

    1 acre = 4047 square meters

    1 acre = 0.405 hectare

    1 square mile (sq mi) = 640 acres

    1 square mile (sq mi) = 2.590 square kilometers

    1 square centimeter (cm2) = 0.155 square inch

    1 square meter (m2) = 10,000 square centimeters

    1 square meter (m2) = 1.196 square yards

    1 hectare (ha) = 10,000 square meters

    1 hectare (ha) = 2.47 acres

    1 square kilometer (km2) = 100 hectares

    1 square kilometer (km2) = 0.3861 square mile

    Time Measures

    1 minute = 60 seconds

    1 hour = 60 minutes

    1 day = 24 hours

    1 week = 7 days

    1 calendar month = 30 days

    1 year = 12 months

    1 year = 365 days

    1 leap year = 366 days

    1 decade = 10 years

    1 century = 100 years

    Troy Weights

    1 grain (gr) = 0.0648 gram

    1 carat = 3.086 grains

    1 pennyweight (dwt) = 24 grains

    1 ounce (oz t) = 20 pennyweights

    1 pound (lb t) = 12 ounces

    X@30303330330333000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000002"#0002"#0002"#0002"#0002"#0002"#0002"#0002"#0002"#0002" "#0002" "#0002" "#0002" "#0002" "#0002"#0002"#0032"#0332"#0302"#0032"#0332"#0302"#0032"#0332"#0302"#0032"#0332""#0302" "#0132" "#0332" "#0302""#0132"#03332"#03102""#01132 ""#03132 ""#03302 ""#0132""#031132"#031002"#030002"#030003"3030103"3031032"#3303"3303"30303303The Solar System <2> 1 barbefore> Sun,Mercury,Venus,Earth,Mars,Asteroids,Jupiter,Saturn,Uranus,Neptune,Pluto,Comets> coords="118, 64,144, 88" href="0124"> coords="105, 73,110, 78" href="07c9"> coords="105, 64,112, 71" href="07ca"> coords=" 89, 64, 96, 71" href="07cb"> coords=" 73, 64, 80, 71" href="07cc"> coords=" 60, 58, 70, 69" href="012c"> coords=" 73, 33, 88, 48" href="07cd"> coords=" 48, 32, 64, 48" href="07ce"> coords=" 25, 41, 32, 48" href="07cf"> coords=" 17, 33, 24, 40" href="07d0"> coords=" 26, 18, 31, 23" href="07d1"> coords=" 7, 8, 15, 17" href="07d2"> "07d3" Basic Facts About the Sun

    Position in solar system

    Center

    Mean distance from Earth

    92,955,600 miles/ 150 million kilometers

    Distance from center of Milky Way Galaxy

    27,710 light-years

    Period of rotation

    27 days on average

    Equatorial diameter

    864,930 miles/ 1.4 million kilometers

    Diameter relative to Earth

    109 times

    Temperature at core

    27,000,000 F/ 15,000,000 C

    Temperature at surface

    8,700 F/ 4,811 C

    Main components

    Hydrogen and helium

    Expected life of hydrogen fuel supply

    6.4 billion years Top Ten Closest Stars to Earth

    (excluding the sun)

    "07d4">Proxima Centauri

    "07d5">Alpha Centauri

    "07d6">Barnard's Star

    "07d7">Wolf 359

    "07d8">Lalande 21185

    "07d9">Luyten 726-8

    "07da">Sirius

    "07db">Ross 154

    "07dc">Ross 248

    "07dd">Epsilon Eridani

    Star Types by Size

    Supergiants: may be 330 times the diameter of the sun.

    Giants: have diameters 10-100 times as large as the sun.

    Medium-size or dwarf: about as large as the sun.

    White dwarfs: small stars (smaller than the distance across Asia)

    Neutron stars: the tiniest (some are only 12 miles in diameter)

    Measuring a Stars' Brightness

    The brightness of stars is based on their absolute magnitude. Brighter stars have smaller magnitude numbers. The brightest sky objects have negative magnitude numbers. So while our sun has an apparent magnitude of -27, it has an absolute magnitude of only +5.

    The 28 Brightest Stars

    (in order of magnitude)

    "07de">Sirius

    "07df">Canopus

    "07e0">Alpha Centauri

    "07e1">Vega

    "07e2">Capella

    "07e3">Arcturus

    "07e4">Rigel

    "07e5">Procyon

    "07e6">Achernar

    "07e7">Beta Centauri

    "07e8">Altair

    "07e9">Betelgeuse

    "07ea">Aldebaran

    "07eb">Spica

    "07ec">Pollux

    "07ed">Antares

    "07ee">Fomalhaut

    "07ef">Deneb

    "07f0">Regulus

    "07f1">Beta Crucis

    "07f2">Alpha-one Crucis

    "07f3">Castor

    "07f4">Gamma Crucis

    "07f5">Epsilon Canis Majoris

    "07f6">Epsilon Ursae Majoris

    "07f7">Bellatrix

    "07f8">Lambda Scorpii

    "07f9">Epsilon Carinae

    Star Colors- What They Mean <2> 4>

    Color

    Surface Temperature

    Blue

    20,000-72,000 F (11,000-40,000 C)

    Blue-white

    13,500-20,000 F (7,500-11,000 C)

    White

    10,800-13,500 F (6,000-7,500 C)

    Yellow

    9,000-10,800 F (5,000-3,500 C)

    Orange

    6,300-9,000 F (3,500-5,000 C)

    Red

    5,400-6,300 F (3,000-3,500 C)

    Stars have different colors depending on how hot they are. Very hot stars are blue, and the coolest of the stars are red.

    Visibility of Planets

    Morning <1>Venus: August 25- December 31 <1>Mars: January 1- April 24 <1>Jupiter: April 15-October 23 <1>Saturn: May 16-November 6

    Evening <1>Venus: January 1- August 16 <1>Mars: April 24- December 31 <1>Jupiter: October 23- March 18 <1>Saturn: November 6- April 10

    Ten Largest Bodies in Solar System

    (ranked in diameter by size)

    Sun: 864,930 miles in diameter

    Jupiter: 88,846 miles in diameter

    Saturn: 74,898 miles in diameter

    Uranus: 31,763 miles in diameter

    Neptune: 30, 778 miles in diameter

    Earth: 7,926 miles in diameter

    Venus: 7,520 miles in diameter

    Mars: 4,222 miles in diameter

    Ganymede (moon of Jupiter): 3,274 miles in diameter

    Titan (moon of Saturn): 3,200 miles in diameter

    Top Ten Asteroids

    (by diameter)

    "07fa">Ceres

    "07fb">Pallas

    "07fc">Vesta

    "07fd">Hebe

    "07fe">Iris

    "07ff">Juno

    "0800">Metis

    "0801">Flora

    "0802">Astraea

    "0803">Hygeia

    Astronomical Constants

    Light-year (distance light travels in one year)

    5,880,000,000,000 miles

    Parsec (parallax of one second, or stellar distances)

    3.259 light yrs.

    Velocity of light

    186,281.7 miles/ sec.

    Astronomical unit (AU), or mean distance Earth to Sun

    ca. 93,000,000 miles

    Mean distance, Earth to Moon

    238,860 miles

    Obliquity of the ecliptic

    23 27'8'.26-0'.4684(t-1900)2

    Equatorial radius of Earth

    3963.34 statute miles

    Polar radius of Earth

    3949.99 statute miles

    Earth's mean radius

    3958.89 statute miles

    Oblateness of Earth

    1/297

    Earth's mean velocity in orbit

    18.5 miles/ sec.

    Sidereal year

    365.2564 days

    Tropical year

    365.2422 days

    Sidereal month

    27.3217 days

    Synodic month

    29.5306 days

    Mean sidereal day

    23 hours 56 minutes 4.091 seconds of mean solar year

    Mean solar day

    24 hours 3 minutes 56.555 seconds of sidereal time The 88 Constellations <2> 3>

    Name

    Symbol

    Andromeda

    Princess of Ethiopia

    Antlia

    The Air Pump

    Apus

    The Bird of Paradise

    Aquarius

    The Water Bearer

    Aquila

    The Eagle

    Ara

    The Altar

    Aries

    The Ram

    Auriga

    The Charioteer

    Bootes

    The Herdsman

    Caelum

    The Sculptor's Chisel

    Camelopardalis

    The Giraffe

    Cancer

    The Crab

    Canes Venatici

    The Hunting Dogs

    Canis Major

    The Greater Dog

    Canis Minor

    The Lesser Dog

    Capricorn

    The Sea Goat

    Carina

    The Keel

    Cassiopeia

    The Seated Lady

    Centaurus

    The Centaur

    Cepheus

    King of Ethiopia

    Cetus

    The Sea Monster

    Chameleon

    The Cameleon

    Circinus

    The Compass

    Columbia

    The Dove

    Coma Berencies

    Bernice's Hair

    Corona Austrina

    The Southern Crown

    Corona Borealis

    The Northern Crown

    Corvus

    The Crow

    Crater

    The Cup

    Crux

    The Southern Cross

    Cygnus

    The Swan

    Delphinus

    The Dolphin

    Dorado

    The Swordfish

    Draco

    The Dragon

    Equuleus

    The Colt

    Eridanus

    The River

    Fornax

    The Laboratory Furnace

    Gemini

    The Twins

    Grus

    The Crane

    Hercules

    Hercules

    Horologium

    The Clock

    Hydra

    The Sea Serpent

    Hydrus

    The Water Snake

    Indus

    The American Indian

    Lacerta

    The Lizard

    Leo

    The Lion

    Leo Minor

    The Lion Cub

    Lepus

    The Hare

    Libra

    The Balance (Scales)

    Lupus

    The Wolf

    Lynx

    The Lynx

    Lyra

    The Lyre

    Mensa

    The Table Mountain

    Microscopium

    The Microscope

    Monoceros

    The Unicorn

    Musca

    The Fly

    Norma

    The Carpenter's Square

    Octans

    The Octant

    Ophiuchus

    The Serpent Holder

    Orion

    The Great Hunter

    Pavo

    The Peacock

    Pegasus

    The Winged Horse

    Perseus

    The Hero

    Phoenix

    The Phoenix

    Pictor

    The Painter's Easel

    Pisces

    The Fishes

    Piscis Austrinus

    The Southern Fishes

    Puppis

    The Stern

    Pyxis

    The Mariner's Compass

    Reticulum

    The Net

    Sagitta

    The Arrow

    Sagittarius

    The Archer

    Scorpio

    The Scorpion

    Sculptor

    The Sculptor

    Scutum

    The Shield

    Serpens

    The Serpent

    Sextans

    The Sextant

    Taurus

    The Bull

    Telescopium

    The Telescope

    Triangulum

    The Triangle

    Traingulum Australe

    The Southern Triangle

    Tucana

    The Toucan

    Ursa Major

    The Large Bear

    Ursa Minor

    The Small Bear

    Vela

    The Sail

    Virgo

    The Virgin

    Volans

    The Flying Fish

    Vulpecula

    The Little Fox

    In 1930 the International Astronomical Union (IAU) declared that no more constellations could be named; it would recognize only the name and boundaries of the 88 constellations known at the time.

    Frequent Comets

    "0804">Arend

    "0805">Ashbrook- Jackson

    "0806">Borrelly

    "0807">Brooks 2

    "0808">Bus

    "0809">Clark

    "080a">Comas Sol

    "080b">Daniel

    "080c">D'Arrest

    "080d">du Toit

    "080e">Faye

    "080f">Finlay

    "0810">Forbes

    "0811">Gehrels 1

    "0812">Gehrels 2

    "0813">Giclas

    "0814">Gunn

    "0815">Halley

    "0816">Harrington

    "0817">Harrington- Abell

    "0818">Herschel- Rigollet

    "0819">Holmes

    "081a">Honda-Mrks- Pajduskov

    "081b">Jackson- Neujmin

    "081c">Kearns- Kwee

    "081d">Kohoutek

    "081e">Kopff

    "081f">Kowal 1

    "0820">Machholz 1

    "0821">Neujmin 1

    "0822">Neujmin 3

    "0823">Olbers

    "0824">Pons-Brooks

    "0825">Reinmuth 1

    "0826">Reinmuth 2

    "0827">Russell 2

    "0828">Sanguin

    "0829">Schaumasse

    "082a">Schwassman- Wachmann 1

    "082b">Schwassman- Wachmann 2

    "082c">Schwassman- Wachmann 3

    "082d">Shajin- Schaldach

    "082e">Slaughter- Burnham

    "082f">Smirnova- Chernukh

    "0830">Swift- Gehrels

    "0831">Tempel 1

    "0832">Tempel 2

    "0833">Tsuchinshan 2

    "0834">Tuttle

    "0835">Tuttle- Giacobini- Kresak

    "0836">Visl

    "0837">West- Kohoutek- Ikemura

    "0838">Whipple

    "0839">Wild 1

    "083a">Wild 2

    "083b">Wolf

    Top Ten Closest Comet Approaches to Earth

    (in order of closest to farthest from Earth)

    Lexell <1>Date: July 1, 1770 <1>Distance (miles): 874,200

    Tempel- Tuttle <1>Date: October 26, 1366 <1>Distance (miles): 1.4 million

    Halley <1>Date: April 10, 1837 <1>Distance (miles): 2.1 million

    Biela <1>Date: December 9, 1805 <1>Distance (miles): 2.9 million

    Grischow <1>Date: February 8, 1743 <1>Distance (miles): 3.1 million

    Pons-Winnecke <1>Date: June 26, 1927 <1>Distance (miles): 3.4 million

    La Hire <1>Date: April 20, 1702 <1>Distance (miles): 3.6 million

    Schwassmann- Wachmann <1>Date: May 31, 1930 <1>Distance (miles): 3.7 million

    Cassini <1>Date: January 8, 1760 <1>Distance (miles): 3.8 million

    Schweizer <1>Date: April 29, 1853 <1>Distance (miles): 4 million

    Phases of the Moon

    The different shapes of the moon are called lunar phases. The word lunar comes from "lune", the Latin word for moon.

    "083c">Illustration

    NOTE: A blue moon is a second full moon within one calendar month. A harvest moon is the full moon that occurs closest to the autumnal equinox. A hunters moon is the next full moon after the harvest moon.

    Ocean Tides

    Low or ebb tide

    Water is at its lowest point along the shore

    High or flood tide

    Water is at its highest point along the shore

    High spring tide

    Occurs twice a month during the new and full moons because the sun and moon are lined up and "pull" on the earth in opposite directions.

    Neap tide

    Occurs during quarter moons because the moon and sun are at 90 angles so the sun lessens the "pull" of the moon The Science of Space

    Astrometry (positional astronomy): studies the movements and positions of celestial bodies

    Astronomy: means "star distribution", studies the stars, planets, and everything else in the universe

    Astrophysics: deals with the physics and chemistry of the stars

    Cosmogony: study of origin as well as the development of the universe

    Cosmology: study of physical and philosophical principles of the universe

    Ethnoastronomy: study of astronomical concepts and traditions across cultures

    Uranography: science of charting the skies (Uranos is Greek for "heavens")

    Chemistry Glossary

    "083d">A B

    "083e">C D

    "083f">E F

    "0840">G H

    "0841">I L

    "0842">M N

    "0843">O P

    "0844">Q S

    "0845">T Z

    Chemistry Numbers and Math

    "0136">Scientific notation

    "0137">Temperature conversions

    "013c">Proportionality

    Scientific Notation

    Scientific notation is a method of streamlining large or small numbers. The standard method is to place the decimal point after the first significant digit and adjust the exponent of ten so that there is no change in the value of the number.

    (0.000,000,000,000,000,000,000,00165 x 1024) x 1/1024 = 1.65 x 10-24 or 1.65 E-24

    (602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000/1023) x 1023 = 6.022 x 1023 or 6.022 E23

    The 'E' in the number stands for exponent.

    The difficult part of using scientific notation is which way to move the decimal point. The way to remember is: numbers that are less than one have negative exponent numbers, and numbers that are larger than one have positive exponent numbers.

    The Temperature Box

    "0138">Fahrenheit to Celsius

    "0139">Celsius to Fahrenheit

    "013a">Celsius to Kelvin

    "013b">Kelvin to Celsius

    "0010">Additional Conversion Factors Fahrenheit to Celsius

    The following equation is how to convert Fahrenheit temperature to Celsius. <1>"0846"

    The Fahrenheit scale is mainly used with weather measurements.

    The Celsius or Centigrade scale is used by scientists and in European weather measurements.

    "0847">Convert Now!

    Celsius to Fahrenheit

    The following equation is how to convert Celsius temperature to Fahrenheit.

    "0848"

    The Celsius or Centigrade scale is used by scientists and in European weather measurements.

    The Fahrenheit scale is mainly used with weather measurements.

    "0847">Convert Now!

    Celsius to Kelvin

    The following equation is how to convert Celsius temperature to Fahrenheit. <1>K = C + 273.15

    The Celsius or Centigrade scale is used by scientists and in European weather measurements.

    The Kelvin scale is used in gas law calculations because it is an absolute scale.

    "0847">Convert Now!

    Kelvin to Celsius

    The following equation is how to convert Celsius temperature to Fahrenheit. <1>C = K 273.15

    The Kelvin scale is used in gas law calculations because it is an absolute scale.

    The Celsius or Centigrade scale is used by scientists and in European weather measurements.

    "0847">Convert Now!

    Proportionality

    "013d">Direct Proportion

    "013e">Inverse Proportion

    Direct Proportion

    An example in chemistry of direct proportionality is the relationship of the pressure and temperature of the same gas at a constant volume. When the temperature increases, the pressure increases. When the temperature decreases, the pressure decreases. The formula for that can be expressed: <1>"0849"

    Inverse Proportion

    An example in chemistry of inverse proportionality is the relationship of the volume and pressure of the same gas at a constant temperature. The formula can be expressed mathematically by: <1>"084a"

    Units and Measures

    "0140">Dimensions, Units, and Symbols

    "0141">Metric prefixes

    "0142">Pressure

    "0143">Density

    "0144">Temperature

    "0145">Energy

    "0146">Heat

    "0147">Concentration

    Dimensions, Units and Symbols

    DIMEN-<1>SION

    SYMBOL

    METRIC UNITS

    Volume

    V

    cubic meter, etc., liter

    Time

    t

    sec, min, hr, day, yr, etc.

    Mass

    m

    Kilogram, AMU

    Pressure

    P

    N/sq.m, atm.,Pa, mmHg

    Density

    D

    gm/ml, Kg/liter, etc.

    Temp-<1>erature

    T

    Celsius or Kelvin

    Energy

    E

    Joule

    Heat

    Q

    calorie

    Con-<1>centration

    C**

    gram/L, mol/L, Molar

    Abbreviations: <1>AMU = atomic mass unit <1>PSI = pounds per square inch <1>cc = cubic centimeter <1>mmHg = millimeters of mercury <1>Pa = Pascal <1>m.p. = metric prefixes <1>cu. = cubic <1>sq. = square <1>atm = atmosphere.

    Metric Prefixes as Factors of Ten <2> 3>

    Factor (X)

    Prefix

    Symbol

    +18

    exa

    E

    +15

    peta

    P

    +12

    tera

    T

    +9

    giga

    G

    +6

    mega

    M

    +3

    kilo

    k

    +2

    hecto

    h

    +1

    deka

    da

    ROOT WORD ONLY

    -1

    deci

    d

    -2

    centi

    c

    -3

    milli

    m

    -6

    micro

    -9

    nano

    n

    -12

    pico

    p

    -15

    femto

    f

    -18

    atto

    a

    Pressure

    A pressure is a force per area. The most common pressure unit used in chemistry is the atmosphere because historically pressure was first measured for weather.

    Density

    Density is mass per volume or weight per volume. Metric system densities are usually in the units of mass per volume, such as kg/L (kilogram per liter) or g/cm (gram per cubic centimeter).

    See also "084b">specific gravity.

    Temperature

    Temperature is actually the measure of the average velocity of the atoms or molecules in a substance. One way to measure it is by the expansion of a liquid in a very small tube. This is the shape of a liquid (usually mercury or alcohol) in a thermometer.

    The Fahrenheit scale is mainly used with weather measurements.

    The Celsius or Centigrade scale is used by scientists and in European weather measurements.

    The Kelvin scale is used in gas law calculations because it is an absolute scale.

    See also "0137">Temperature Conversions.

    Energy

    Energy is defined as a quantity that describes the capacity to do work; commonly divided into three major classifications: kinetic energy, potential energy, and radiant energy.

    Heat

    Heat is a form of energy. It is the energy of the motion of molecules. Even though heat and energy are fundamentally the same dimension, we measure and calculate them differently.

    See also "084c">calorie and "084d">Calorie(food).

    Concentration

    Concentration is the amount of material in a volume. In chemistry, the amount of "084e">solute in a solution is the most common measurement.

    The equation used for changes in concentration of solutions is:

    "084f"

    Where C1 and V1 are the concentration and volume of solution 1 and C 2and V2are the concentration and volume of solution 2.

    Periodic Table

    Turn your Game Boy Advance sideways for the illustration to appear upright. You can click on each element to view more information about it.

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    "08be"

    States of Matter

    "014a">Solids

    "014b">Liquids

    "014c">Gases

    "014d">Triple Point of Materials

    Solids

    Solids are materials in which the atoms or molecules are set in place. Solids show a definite shape and a definite volume.

    Ionic solids, such as table salt crystals, are formed by ions which are interconnected by electrical attraction.

    Covalently linked solids usually form crystals such as diamonds. Covalently linked solids are the hardest materials.

    Amorphous solids (without crystal shape) can be like carbon black or linked as in plastics.

    Liquids

    Liquids are materials in which the atoms or molecules are as close to each other as solids, but there is more motion of the particles. Liquids have no shape except for the shape of the container. Liquids cant be compressed under common pressures. In a liquid the forces that hold the particles of liquid close to each other are greater than the forces due to motion that would force the particles away from each other.

    Gases

    Gas, or vapor, is the most energetic phase of matter. The most important characteristic of a gas is that the motion of the particles is so great that the forces of attraction between the particles are not able to hold any of them together. Gases have no shape of their own, that is, they take on the shape of the container. Gases have no given volume and will expand to fill their container. The speeds of the gas particles increase with higher temperatures.

    By "0150">Avogadro's Law, a "08bf">mol of any gas occupies 22.4 liters at standard temperature and pressure (STP).

    Triple Point

    Triple point is a temperature and pressure condition at which an element or compound exists in all three phases (solid, liquid, and gas) at equilibrium.

    Examples:

    Carbon dioxide is a gas at room temperature. Solid carbon dioxide is known as dry ice. The dry ice goes directly from solid phase to the vapor phase at standard pressures and room temperature. If the pressure is increased a triple point for carbon dioxide can be reached.

    Water when frozen and left at standard pressure and room temperature has a triple point.

    What is a Gas?

    "014f">Gas definition

    "0150">Avogadro's law

    "0151">Boyle's law

    "0152">Charles's law

    "0153">Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures

    "0154">General Gas law

    "0155">Graham's Law of Effusion

    "0156">Ideal Gas law

    Gas Definition

    A gas is the state of matter that fills any container that it occupies. It is composed of widely spaced molecules (or atoms) in continuous, chaotic motion. The speeds of the gas particles increase with higher temperatures.

    By "0150">Avogadro's Law, a mol of any gas occupies 22.4 liters at standard temperature and pressure (STP).

    Avogadro's Law

    Avogadros law states that equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules. The number of molecules in one mole of gas is always 6.022 X 1023 (Avogadros constant). It follows from Avogadros law that 1 mole of any gas always occupies the same volume at constant temperature and pressure.

    Boyle's Law

    Boyles Law states that the volume (V) of a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure (P) at a constant temperature.

    <1>"08c0" <1>

    Where P1 represents pressure #1, V1 represents volume #1, P2 represents pressure #2, and V2 represents volume #2.

    Charles' Law

    Charless law (or Gay-Lussac law) states that at constant pressure a gas volume of a given mass is proportional to its absolute temperature.

    <1>"08c1" <1>

    Where V1 is the volume of gas #1, V2 is the volume of gas #2, T1 is the temperature of gas #1, and T2 is the temperature of gas #2.

    Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure

    Daltons Law of Partial Pressures states that the total pressure of a mixture of gases equals the sum of the partial pressures of the component gases at the same temperature. The partial pressure of a component gas is the pressure the gas would exert if it alone occupied the total volume at the same temperature.

    <1>"08c2" <1>

    Where PT is the total pressure, P1 is the partial pressure of 'gas #1', P2 is the partial pressure of 'gas #2', Pn is the partial pressure of the last gas, whatever number (n) is.

    General Gas Law

    The General Gas law (or Combined Gas law) is a combination of Boyles Law and Charless Law. This law enables the volume of a gas to be calculated at a specific temperature and pressure so long as the volume of the gas is known at another temperature and pressure.

    <1>"08c3" <1>

    Where P1 and P2 represent pressures #1 and #2, V1 and V2 represent volumes #1 and #2, and T1 and T2 represent temperatures #1 and #2.

    Graham's Law of Diffusion (or Effusion)

    Grahams law of effusion is an empirical law that states that the relative rates of effusion of different gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure are inversely proportional to the square roots of their densities.

    <1>"08c4" <1>

    Where E1 represents the rate of effusion of gas #1, E2 represents the rate of effusion of gas #2, <1>"08c5" <1>is the square root of the density of gas #1,and <1>"08c6" <1>is the square root of the density of gas #2.

    The Ideal Gas Law Formula

    The ideal gas law is represented by the following equation<1>pV = nRT

    where V represents the volume of n moles of an ideal gas with pressure p and temperature T , and R represents the gas constant.

    Physics Terms and Definitions Part 1

    "08c7">To Physics Terms and Definitions N-Z

    "08c8">Absolute Temperature Scale

    "08c9">Absolute Zero

    "08ca">Acceleration

    "08cb">Alpha Particle

    "08cc">Alternating Current (AC)

    "08cd">Antinode

    "08ce">Atom

    "08cf">Atomic Mass Unit

    "08d0">Atomic Mass

    "08d1">Atomic Number

    "08d2">Atomic Weight

    "08d3">Beta Particle

    "08d4">Black Body

    "08d5">Boson

    "08d6">British Thermal Unit (BTU)

    "08d7">Buoyancy

    "08d8">Calorie

    "08d9">Centripetal Force

    "08da">Chain Reaction

    "08db">Complementary Colors

    "08dc">Concurrent Forces

    "08dd">Condensation

    "08de">Conduction

    "08df">Convection

    "08e0">Crest

    "08e1">Damping

    "08e2">Diamagnetic Substance

    "08e3">Diffraction

    "08e4">Direct Current (DC)

    "08e5">Dynamo

    "08e6">Electric Field

    "08e7">Electrolyte

    "08e8">Electromotive Force (EMF)

    "08e9">Electron

    "08ea">Endothermic

    "08eb">Energy

    "08ec">Exothermic

    "08ed">Fermions

    "08ee">Fission

    "08ef">Focal Length

    "08f0">Force

    "08f1">Friction

    "08f2">Fusion

    "08f3">Gamma Radiation

    "08f4">Gluons

    "08f5">Half-life

    "08f6">Heat of Fusion

    "08f7">Heat of Vaporization

    "08f8">Hertz

    "08f9">Higgs Particle

    "08fa">Hypothesis

    "08fb">Ideal Gas

    "08fc">Impulse

    "08fd">Inertia

    "08fe">Kinetic Energy

    "08ff">Laser

    "0900">Left- Hand Rule (Magnetism)

    "0901">Longitudinal Wave

    "08c7">To Physics Terms and Definitions M-Z

    Common Laws, Principles and Theories

    "0159">Laws

    "016e">Principles

    "0176">Theories

    Common Physics Laws

    "015a">Boyle's Law

    "015b">Charles' Law

    "015c">Combined Gas Law

    "015d">Conservation Laws

    "015e">Coulomb's Law

    "015f">First Law of Thermodynamics

    "0160">Law of Electromagnetic Energy

    "0161">Law of Electrostatic Interaction

    "0162">Law of Gravity

    "0163">Law of Heat Exchange

    "0164">Law of Magnets

    "0165">Law of Reflection

    "0166">Hook's Law

    "0167">Inverse-Square Law

    "0168">Joule's Law

    "0169">Newton's Law of Motion

    "016a">Newton's Second Law (Rational Motion)

    "016b">Ohm's Law

    "016c">Second Law of Thermodynamics

    "016d">Snell's Law

    Boyle's Law

    "0902"

    Pi = initial pressure <1>Vi = initial volume <1>Pf = final pressure <1>Vf = final volume

    Charles' Law

    "0903"

    Vi = initial volume <1>Ti = initial temperature <1>Vf = final volume <1>Tf = final temperature

    Combined Gas Law

    "0904"

    P = pressure

    V = volume

    T = temperature

    conditions: 1 = initial, 2 = final

    Conservation Laws

    A conservation law (like the conservation of mass or energy) is a rule that a certain entity must not change in amount during a certain class of operations.

    "0905">Conservation of Angular Momentum

    "0906">Conservation of Energy

    "0907">Conservation of Mass

    "0908">Conservation of Mass-Energy

    "0909">Conservation of Momentum

    Coulomb's Law

    "090a"

    F = force

    Q1Q2 = charge on bodies 1 and 2

    r = distance between 1 and 2

    k = Coulomb's Law constant

    First Law of Thermodynamics

    Heat absorbed by a system equals work done by the system plus the change in internal energy (all energy is conserved).

    Law of Electromagnetic Energy

    The energy is equal to the product of Planck's constant and the frequency.

    E = hf

    E = energy

    h = Planck's constant (6.67259 10 -34)

    f = frequency

    Law of Electrostatic Interaction

    Like charges repel; unlike charges attract

    NOTE: <1>+ repels + <1>- repels - <1>+ attracts -

    Law of Gravity

    The gravitational force between any two objects is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

    Law of Heat Exchange

    In any heat transfer system energy is conserved. The heat lost by hot materials equals the heat gained by cold materials.

    Law of Magnets

    Like poles repel; unlike poles attract

    Example: North repels North; South repels South; North attracts South; South attracts North

    Law of Reflection

    When a wave is reflected, the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.

    Hooke's Law

    F = -kx

    F = distortion force

    k = spring constant

    x = distortion distance

    Inverse-Square Law

    The intensity of the radiation decreases as the inverse of the square of the distance from a point source of radiation.

    Joule's Law <1>

    H = I2Rt

    H = heat in calories

    R = resistance in ohms

    I = current in amperes

    t = time in seconds

    Newton's Law of Motion Any object at rest tends to stay at rest. A body in motion moves at the same velocity in a straight line unless acted upon by a force.The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force acting on it and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Newton's Second Law (Rational Motion)

    Torque = (moment of inertia) (angular acceleration)

    Ohm's Law

    Voltage = (current) (resistance)

    V = volts <1>current = amperes <1>resistance = ohms <1>NOTE: Electric current is directly proportional to the potential difference and inversely proportional to resistance.

    Second Law of Thermodynamics

    Heat in a closed system can never travel from a low temperature region to one of higher temperature in a self-sustaining process (no process is 100% efficient).

    Snell's Law

    "090b"

    Angles 1 and 2 are angles of incidence and refraction respectively.

    Principles

    "016f">Archimedes' Principle

    "0170">Bernoulli's Principle

    "0171">Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle

    "0172">Huygen's Principle

    "0173">Pascal's Principle

    "0174">Pauli's Exclusion Principle

    "0175">Principle of Conservation of Energy

    Archimedes' Principle

    The apparent loss in weight of an object immersed in a fluid equals the weight of the displaced fluid.

    Bernoulli's Principle

    The greater the velocity of a fluid, the lower its pressure (This accounts for the lifting force of an aircraft's wing).

    Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle

    It is impossible to specify completely the position and momentum of a particle such as an electron.

    Huygen's Principle

    Each point on a wave front may be regarded as a new source of disturbance.

    Pascal's Principle

    Pressure applied to a confined liquid is transmitted through the liquid without loss and acts perpendicular on the surface of the container holding that liquid.

    Pauli's Exclusion Principle

    Two particles of a certain class that are essentially the same cannot be in the same exact state.

    Principle of Conservation of Energy

    Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but may be changed from one form or another.

    Theories

    "0177">Kinetic Theory

    "0178">Maxwell's Theory

    "0179">Quantum Theory

    Kinetic Theory

    All matter is composed of molecules that are in constant random motion

    Maxwell's Theory

    Light is a transverse wave in which electric and magnetic fields vibrate at right angles to the direction the wave is traveling.

    Quantum Theory

    Energy is transmitted in discrete packets called photons (small masses act sometimes like particles and sometimes like waves).

    Common Physics Formulas

    "090c">Acceleration

    "090d">Actual Mechanical Advantage (AMA)

    "090e">Amount of Energy in a Quantum:

    "090f">Average Speed with Constant Acceleration (not starting from rest)

    "0910">Average Speed with Constant Acceleration (starting from rest)

    "0911">Celsius to Fahrenheit

    "0912">Celsius to Kelvin

    "0913">Centripetal Acceleration

    "0914">Change in Momentum (or impulse)

    "0915">Change on the Plate of a Parallel Plate Capacitor

    "0916">Coefficient of Sliding Friction

    "0917">Density

    "0918">Distance at Constant Velocity

    "0919">Einstein's Equation

    "091a">Electric Field Intensity

    "091b">Equation to Express Mass in Terms of Weight

    "091c">Final Velocity with Uniform Acceleration

    "091d">Focal Length of Spherical Mirror

    "091e">Focal Length of Spherical Mirror (of radius R)

    "091f">Force

    "0920">Force on a Current-Carrying Wire in a Magnetic Field

    "0921">Force on a Moving Charge in a Magnetic Field

    "0922">Frequency

    "0923">Heat Exchange

    "0924">Heat of Fusion

    "0925">Heat of Vaporization

    "0926">Ideal Mechanical Advantage (IMA)

    "0927">Illumination (in lumens)

    "0928">Intensity Level of Sound

    "0929">Kinetic Energy

    "092a">Lens Equation

    "092b">Liquid Pressure

    "092c">Mechanical Advantage

    "092d">Momentum

    "092e">Newton's Law of Gravity

    "092f">Potential Difference between Two Points

    "0930">Potential Energy

    "0931">Power

    "0932">Power in an AC-circuit (in watts)

    "0933">Pressure

    "0934">Quantum Energy Relationship

    "0935">Speed

    "0936">Telescopic Magnification

    "0937">Velocity Ratio

    "0938">Wave Velocity

    "0939">Work

    "093a">Work Against Friction

    "093b">Work Input

    "093c">Work Output

    Basic Symbols of Physics

    alpha particle

    angstrom unit

    beta ray

    gamma radiation

    electromotive force

    h

    efficiency

    L

    equivalent conductivity; permeance

    l

    wavelength

    m

    magnetic moment

    u

    frequency

    r

    density; specific resistance

    s

    conductivity; cross section; surface tension

    f

    luminous flux, magnetic flux

    j

    fluidity

    W

    ohm

    B

    magnetic induction; magnetic field

    c

    speed of light

    e

    electronic charge of electron

    E

    electronic field

    G

    conductance; weight

    h

    Planck's constant

    H

    enthalpy

    L

    inductance

    n

    index of refraction

    P

    momentum of a particle

    R

    universal gas constant

    S

    entropy

    T

    absolute temperature; period

    V

    electrical potential; frequency

    W

    energy

    X

    magnification; reactance

    Y

    admittance

    Z

    impedance Archean Eon

    Geological Time Scale: 4,600 Million Years Ago <1>Life-Forms Starting to Appear: Monerans, Bacteria and blue-green algae.

    Proterozoic Eon

    Geological Time Scale: 2,500 Million Years Ago <1>Life-Forms Starting to Appear: Protists, algae and soft bodied creatures similar to jellyfish and worms.

    Phanerozoic Eon

    "017f">Paleozoic Era: 570 Million Years Ago

    "0180">Mesozoic Era: 235 Million Years Ago

    "0181">Cenozoic Era: 65 Million Years Ago

    Paleozoic Era

    Cambrian Period<1>Geological Time Scale: 570 Million Years Ago<1>Life-Forms Starting to Appear: Tiny fossils with skeletons followed by animals with shells, notably trilobites.

    <1>Ordovician Period<1>Geological Time Scale: 500 Million Years Ago<1>Life-Forms Starting to Appear: Brachiopods (shellfish similar to clams), corals, starfish and some organisms that have no modern counterparts called "sea scorpions", "conodonts" and "graptolites".

    <1>Silurian Period<1>Geological Time Scale: 425 Million Years Ago<1>Life-Forms Starting to Appear: Snails, clams and mussels, ammonoids (similar to the nautilus), jawless fish, sea scorpions, first land plants and animals (club mosses, land scorpions), and first modern groups of algae and fungi.

    Devonian Period<1>Geological Time Scale: 395 Million Years Ago<1>Life-Forms Starting to Appear: Spiders, amphibians, jawed fish, lobe-finned fish, sharks, lungfish, and ferns.

    Carboniferous Period<1>Geological Time Scale: 350 Million Years Ago<1>Life-Forms Starting to Appear: Insects, land snails, amphibians, early reptiles, sea lilies, giant club mosses and seed ferns.

    Permian Period<1>Geological Time Scale: 290 Million Years Ago<1>Life-Forms Starting to Appear: Mammal-like reptiles and fin-backed reptiles, cycads, ginkgoes and conifers.

    Mesozoic Era

    Triassic Period<1>Geological Time Scale: 235 Million Years Ago<1>Life-Forms Starting to Appear: Marine reptiles (plesiosaurs and ichthyosaurs), crocodiles, frogs, turtles, early mammals and early dinosaurs.

    Jurassic Period<1>Geological Time Scale: 190 Million Years Ago<1>Life-Forms Starting to Appear: Dinosaurs (such as stegosaurus), pterosaurs (such as pterodactyl), early birds, dinoflagellates, diatoms and early flowering plants.

    Cretaceous Period<1>Geological Time Scale: 130 Million Years Ago<1>Life-Forms Starting to Appear: Dinosaurs (tyrannosaurus, triceratops and brontosaurus), salamanders, modern bony fishes, mosasaurs (marine lizards), flowering plants, placental and marsupial mammals.

    Cenozoic Era

    "0182">Tertiary Period: 65 Million Years Ago

    "0183">Quaternary Period: 1.8 Million Years Ago

    Tertiary Period

    Paleocene Epoch<1>Geological Time Scale: 65 Million Years Ago <1>Life-Forms Starting to Appear: Early primates, early horses, rodents and sycamores.

    Eocene Epoch<1>Geological Time Scale: 55 Million Years Ago <1>Life-Forms Starting to Appear: Whales, penguins, roses, bats, camels, early elephants, dogs, cats and weasels.

    Oligocene Epoch<1>Geological Time Scale: 38 Million Years Ago <1>Life-Forms Starting to Appear: Deer, pigs, saber-toothed cats and monkeys.

    Miocene Epoch<1>Geological Time Scale: 26 Million Years Ago <1>Life-Forms Starting to Appear: Seals, dolphins, grasses, daisies, asters, sunflowers, lettuce, giraffes, bears, hyenas and early apes.

    Pliocene Epoch<1>Geological Time Scale: 6 Million Years Ago <1>Life-Forms Starting to Appear: Apes, australopithecine's (early hominids), Homo habilis (first human species), mammoths, giant sloths and armadillos.

    Quaternary Period

    Pleistocene Epoch<1>Geological Time Scale: 1.8 Million Years Ago <1>Life-Forms Starting to Appear: Homo erectus (ancestor of modern humans), modern humans and Neanderthal humans, large mammals (bison and beavers) and hoofed animals.

    Holocene Epoch<1>Geological Time Scale: 11,000 Years Ago <1>Life-Forms Starting to Appear: Modern humans and the flora and fauna of today.

    Cell Mitosis

    The simplest form of cell division whereby the chromosomes within the original cell divide to eventually form two exact daughter cells. There are four stages of mitosis: "093d">prophase, "093e">metaphase, "093f">anaphase, and "0940">telophase.

    NOTE: Chromosomes are the threadlike structures within the nuclei that carry the genetic information of that cell.

    "0941">Illustration

    Systems of the Body

    "0186">Circulatory System

    "0187">Digestive System

    "0188">Endocrine System

    "0189">Muscle System

    "018a">Nervous System

    "018b">Reproductive System (female)

    "018c">Reproductive System (male)

    "018d">Respiratory System

    "018e">Skeletal System

    "018f">Urinary System

    Circulatory System

    The circulatory system consists of the heart and blood vessels, which together are responsible for the continuous flow of blood throughout the body. Also called the cardiovascular system, the circulatory system provides all body tissues with a regular supply of oxygen and nutrients and carries away carbon dioxide and other waste products.

    The circulatory system consists of two main parts: the systematic circulation (which comprises the blood supply to the entire body except the lungs) and the pulmonary circulation to the lungs (which is responsible for the re-oxygenating the blood).

    "0942"

    Digestive System

    The digestive system consists of the group of organs that breaks down food into chemical components that the body can absorb and use for energy and for building and repairing cells and tissues.

    The digestive system consists of the digestive tract (also known as the alimentary canal) and various associated organs. The digestive tract is basically the tube through which food passes; it consists of the mouth, pharynx (throat), esophagus, stomach, intestines (the small intestine comprising the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, and the large intestine comprising the cecum, colon, and rectum), and the anus. The associated digestive organs- such as the salivary glands, liver, and pancreas- secrete digestive juices that break down food as it passes through the tract.

    "0943"

    Image Key <1>A = Esophagus <1>B = Stomach <1>C = Liver <1>D = Large Intestine <1>E = Small Intestine <1>F = Anus

    Endocrine System

    The endocrine system is a collection of glands that produce the hormones (chemical substances necessary for normal body functioning) that regulate the body's rate of metabolism, growth, and sexual development and functioning. Unlike the exocrine glands, the secretions of which pass through ducts to local areas, endocrine glands are ductless and release their hormones directly into the bloodstream to be transported to organs and tissues throughout the body.

    Pancreas: secretes insulin and glucagon, which control the body's utilization of glucose

    Adrenal Cortex: produces hydrocortisone (when stimulated by ACTH) which has widespread effects on metabolism; also produces androgen hormones and aldosterone, which maintains blood pressure and the body's salt balance

    Ovaries: produce the hormones estrogen and progesterone which influence multiple aspects of female physiology. These processes are controlled by gonadotropic hormones which are secreted by the pituitary.

    Pituitary gland: secretes hormones that stimulate the adrenals, thyroid, pigmentation-producing skin cells, and gonads; also secretes growth hormone antidiuretic hormone, prolactin, and oxytocin.

    Thyroid gland: produces the hormones thyroxine, triiodothyronine, and calcitonin, which stimulate metabolism, body heat production, and bone growth. Thyroid activity is controlled by TSH, which is secreted by the pituitary.

    Parathyroid glands: secrete parathyroid hormone, which maintains the calcium level in the blood.

    Testes: produce testosterone in response to gonadotropins secreted by the pituitary. A combination of gonadotropins and testosterone stimulates sperm production and the development of other male characteristics.

    "0944"

    A = Hypothalamus <1>B = Pituitary gland <1>C = Thyroid <1>D = Parathyroid <1>E = Adrenal <1>F = Pancreas, islets of Langerhans <1>G = Testes (male) <1>H = Ovary (female)

    Muscle System

    The muscle structure is composed of bundles of specialized cells capable of contraction and relaxation to create movement, both of the body itself in relation to the environment and of the organs within it. There are three different types of muscle in the body-skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. The largest part of the musculature consists of skeletal muscle.

    Skeletal Muscle <1>There are over 600 skeletal muscles within the body. These are classified according to the type of action each muscle performs. An extensor muscle opens out a joint, a flexor closes it, an adductor moves it outward, a levator raises it, a depressor lowers it, and constrictor or sphincter muscles surround and close body orifices.

    Smooth Muscle <1>This type of muscle is concerned with the movements of internal organs, such as peristalsis in the intestine and contractions of the uterus during childbirth. Many other parts of the body, such as the bronchi of the lungs, the bladder, and the walls of blood vessels also contain smooth muscle.

    Cardiac Muscle <1>This type of muscle, also called myocardium, is found only in the heart; it has unique properties that enable it to rhythmically contract about 100,000 times a day to propel blood through the circulatory system. The structure of cardiac muscle resembles that of skeletal muscle. <1>Contraction of the cardiac muscle is stimulated by the autonomic nervous system, hormones, and stretching of muscle fibers. <1>"0945"

    Image Key <1>A = Serratus Anterior<1>B = Rectus Abdominus<1>C = Sartorius<1>D = Sterno Mastoid<1>E = Pectoralis Major<1>F = Biceps<1>G = Quadriceps<1>H = Gastrocnemius

    Nervous System

    The nervous system is the body's information gathering, storage, and control system.

    The overall function of the nervous system is to gather information about the external environment and the body's internal state, and to initiate appropriate responses aimed at satisfying certain drives. The most powerful drive is for survival. Many survival responses, which range from running away from danger to shivering in response to cold, are initiated unconsciously and automatically by the nervous system.

    The central processing unit for the system is the central nervous system (CNS), comprising the brain and spinal cord, which consists of billions of interconnecting neurons (nerve cells).

    Input of information to the CNS comes from the sense organs. Output (motor) instructions go to the skeletal muscles, muscles controlling speech, internal organs and glands, and the sweat glands in the skin. The cables along which this information is carried are the nerves that fan out from the CNS to the entire body.

    In addition to these anatomical divisions of the nervous system, there are various functional divisions. Two of the most important are the autonomic nervous system, which is specifically concerned with the automatic (unconscious) regulation of internal body functioning, and the somatic nervous system, which controls the skeletal muscles responsible for voluntary movement.

    "0946"

    A = Brain <1>B = Spinal cord <1>C = Cervical nerves <1>D = Thoracic nerves <1>E = Lumbar nerves

    Reproductive System (female)

    The organs of the female reproductive system enable a woman to produce ova (eggs), to have intercourse, to nourish a fertilized ovum until it has been developed into a full grown fetus, and to give birth. Apart from the vulva (external genitalia), the female reproductive organs lie within the pelvic cavity.

    Ova are released each month from the ovaries, two small egg-shaped glands. The glands also secrete sex hormones, which control the reproductive cycle. Adjacent to each ovary is a fallopian tube, which carries ova to the uterus, a hollow pear-shaped organ that is situated between the bladder and the rectum. If, on its journey along the fallopian tube, an ovum unites with a sperm, fertilization takes place.

    Sperm travel upward through the cervix and uterus on their journey to the fallopian tubes. The cervix projects into the top of the vagina, a muscular passage that forms the lower part of the birth canal and that receives ejaculated sperm during sexual intercourse. Surrounding and protecting the opening of the vagina are the fleshy folds of the vulva.

    Fertility, the normal functioning of the reproductive system, begins at puberty (when it is signaled by the onset of menstruation) and ceases at the time of menopause.

    "0947"

    A = Fallopian tube <1>B = Ovary <1>C = Uterus <1>D = Vagina

    Reproductive System (male)

    The male reproductive organs enable a man to have sexual intercourse and to fertilize the woman's ova (eggs) with sperm. Sperm and male hormones are produced in the testes, a pair of ovoid glands suspended in a pouch known as a scrotum. From each testis, sperm pass into an epididymis, a long coiled tube behind the testis, where they slowly mature and are stored.

    Shortly before ejaculation, sperm are propelled from the epididymus into a long duct called the vas deferens, which carries the carries the sperm to the seminal vesicles, a pair of sacs that lies behind the bladder. These sacs produce seminal fluid, which is added to the sperm to produce semen.

    Semen travels from the vesicles along two ducts to the urethra, a tube that acts as a passage for urine and semen. The ducts pass through the prostate gland, a chestnut-shaped organ lying beneath the bladder and surrounding the upper urethra. The prostate produces secretions that are added to the semen.

    "0948"

    A = Prostate gland <1>B = Vas deferens (sperm duct) <1>C = Penis <1>D = Urethra <1>E = Testes

    Respiratory System

    The respiratory organs are responsible for carrying oxygen from the air to the bloodstream and for expelling the waste product carbon dioxide.

    Air passes from the nose or mouth, via various respiratory passages, to millions of balloon-like sacs, the alveoli, in the lungs. Oxygen in the warmed and moistened inhaled air passes through the thin walls of the alveoli into the bloodstream, and carbon dioxide passes from the blood into the alveoli to be breathed out.

    Air is inhaled and exhaled by the actions of the chest muscles and diaphragm.

    "0949"

    Image Key <1>A = Nasal Cavity<1>B = Oral Cavity<1>C = Larynx<1>D = Windpipe (Trachea)<1>E = Lungs

    Skeletal System

    The average human skeleton has 206 bones joined with ligaments and tendons to form a protective and supportive framework for the attached muscles and underlying soft tissues of the body.

    The skeleton consists of two main parts, known as the axial and appendicular skeletons. The axial comprises skull, spine, ribs, and sternum totaling 80 bones. The appendicular consists of the two limb girdles (shoulder and pelvis) and their attached limb bones totaling 126 bones.

    "094a"

    Image Key <1>A = Spine<1>B = Pelvis<1>C = Carpus<1>D = Femur<1>E = Tibia<1>F = Fibula<1>G = Skull<1>H = Clavicle<1>I = Ribs<1>J = Humerus<1>K = Radius<1>L = Ulna<1>M = Patella

    Urinary System

    The urinary organs of the body are concerned with the formation and excretion of urine. The urinary tract consists of the kidneys (with their blood and nerve supplies), the renal pelves (funnel-shaped ducts that channel urine from the kidneys into the ureters), the ureters, bladder, and urethra.

    The kidneys make urine by filtering the blood. The urine collects in the renal pelves and then passes down the ureters into the bladder by gravity and by peristalsis (wavelike contractions of the uretic walls). Urine is then stored in the bladder until a sufficient amount is present to stimulate the micturition (passage of urine). When the bladder contracts, the urine is expelled from the body via the urethra.

    "094b"

    Image Key <1>A = Kidney<1>B = Ureter<1>C = Bladder<1>D = Urethra

    Order of Scientific Classification:

    Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) created a system to classify living things based on Genus (Latin for "race" or "birth") and Species (Latin for "kind").

    The complete classification system includes: <1>Kingdom <1>Phylum <1>Subphylum <1>Superclass <1>Class <1>Subclass <1>Infraclass <1>Order <1>Family <1>Genus <1>Species

    "0191">Classification of Plants

    Classification of Plants: The plant kingdom is divided into two main groups, vascular and non vascular.The vascular group is further divided into two groups, those with seeds and those without seeds. The seed group is divided into two more groups, angiosperms and gymnosperms.Angiosperms (include flowering plants) are divided into dicots (roses and oaks) and monocots (grasses and palms). X@333 3"3"3"3"3 "" "" """ "" """""""""" "" """"""""""""""""""""""""""3"3"3"3"3"3"3"3"33Bill of Rights

    Currently, there are 27 amendments to the Constitution of the United States.

    These first ten amendments to the Constitution were ratified by the First Congress, December 15, 1791, and are known as the Bill of Rights:

    Amendment 1 <1>Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.

    Amendment 2 <1>A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.

    Amendment 3 <1>No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

    Amendment 4 <1>The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

    Amendment 5 <1>No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness, against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.

    Amendment 6 <1>In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense.

    Amendment 7 <1>In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.

    Amendment 8 <1>Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

    Amendment 9 <1>The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparate others retained by the people.

    Amendment 10 <1>The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States, respectively, or to the people.

    Branches of Government

    The Constitution contains seven articles.

    The first three articles of the Constitution established the Legislative, Executive, and Judicial Branches of the U.S. government:

    Article 1: Creates the Legislative Branch <1>All legislative powers herein shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.

    Article 2: Creates the Executive Branch <1>The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same term.

    Article 3: Creates the Judicial Branch <1>The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and the inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services, a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office.

    Electoral College

    The Electoral College is not a school but rather a group of people (electors) chosen by voters in every state. The number of electors for each state is determined by the total number of its Senators and Representatives in Congress. For example Utah has two Senators and three Representatives in Congress, thus giving it a total of five electors in the Electoral College. The presidential candidate must win more than half the popular votes in a given state to receive all of that states electoral votes. The candidate with the majority of all electoral votes wins the Presidency. If neither candidate receives a majority of the electoral votes, the choice goes to the House of Representatives with each state having one vote. To be elected at the House of Representatives, a majority vote is also needed.

    Requirements-Federal Office

    Requirements for President <1>Term:Four years. May be re-elected once. Must be thirty-five years old.Must be a citizen born in the United States.Must have lived in the United States for fourteen consecutive years.

    Requirements for Congress <1>Senator <1>Term:Six years. One third of the Senate is elected every two years. The Vice President serves as the President of the Senate. Must be thirty years old.Must have been a citizen for at least nine years.Must be a resident of the state from which elected.

    Representative <1>Term:Two years. The House elects a chairperson called the Speaker of the House. Must be at least twenty-five years old.Must have been a citizen for at least seven years.Must be a resident of the state from which elected. Government Contact Information

    "0198">Department of Agriculture

    "0199">Department of Commerce

    "019a">Department of Defense

    "019b">Department of Education

    "019c">Department of Energy

    "019d">Department of Health and Human Services

    "019e">Department of the Interior

    "019f">Department of Justice

    "01a0">Department of Transportation

    "01a1">Department of the Treasury

    "01a2">Environmental Protection Agency

    "01a3">Federal Communications Commission

    "01a4">National Aeronautics and Space Administration

    "01a5">National Endowment for the Arts

    "01a6">National Endowment for the Humanities

    "01a7">National Science Foundation

    "01a8">United States Congress

    "01a9">United States House of Representatives

    "01aa">United States Senate

    "01ab">The White House

    Department of Agriculture

    Address:

    14th Street and Independence Avenue SW <1>Washington, DC 20250

    Main Phone #

    (202) 720-2791

    Web Address:

    http://www.usda.gov/

    Information:

    Animal and plant health; consumer affairs; family nutrition; food safety and inspection; human nutrition; veterinary medicine.

    Department of Commerce

    Address:

    14th Street and Constitution Avenue NW <1>Washington, DC 20230

    Main Phone #

    (202) 482-2000

    Reference #

    (202) 377-2161

    Web Address:

    http://www.commerce.gov/

    Information:

    Business outlook analyses; economic and demographic statistics; engineering; imports and exports; minority-owned business; patents and trademarks; technology; travel; weather and atmosphere.

    Department of Defense

    Address:

    The Pentagon <1>Washington, DC 20301-1400

    Main Phone #

    (703) 545-6700

    Web Address:

    http://www.defenselink.mil/

    Information:

    Atomic energy; foreign country security; mapping; military history; nuclear operations and technology; tactical warfare.

    Department of Education

    Address:

    400 Maryland Avenue SW <1>Washington, DC 20202

    Main Phone #

    (202) 401-2000

    Web Address:

    http://www.ed.gov/

    Information:

    Adult education; bilingual education; civil rights; educational statistics; elementary and secondary education.

    Department of Energy

    Address:

    Forrestal Building 1000 Independence Avenue SW Washington, DC 20585

    Main Phone #

    (202) 586-5000

    Public Affairs #

    (202) 586-6827

    Web Address:

    http://www.doe.gov/

    Information:

    Coal liquids, gas, shale, oil; conservation; energy emergencies; fusion energy; inventions; nuclear energy; nuclear physics.

    Department of Health and Human Services

    Address:

    200 Independence Avenue SW <1>Washington, DC 20201

    Main Phone #

    (202) 619-0257

    Web Address:

    http://wvvw.os.dhhs.gov/

    Information:

    AIDS; alcohol abuse diseases; drug abuse; drug research, family planning; food safety; minority health; occupational safety; smoking; statistical data; toxic substances; veterinary medicine.

    Department of the Interior

    Address:

    18th and C Street NW <1>Washington, DC 20240

    Main Phone #

    (202) 208-3100

    Web Address:

    http://www.info.usg.gov/doi

    Information:

    Archaeology; fish and wildlife; geology; mapping; minerals; Native Americans; natural resources and water.

    Department of Justice

    Address:

    10th Street and Constitution Avenue NW <1>Washington, DC 20530

    Main Phone #

    (202) 633-2000

    Public Affairs #

    (202) 633-2007

    Web Address:

    http://www.usdoj.gov/

    Information:

    Civil rights; drug enforcement; immigration; justice statistics; juvenile justice; prisons.

    Department of Transportation

    Address:

    400 7th Street SW <1>Washington, DC 20590

    Main Phone #

    (202) 366-4000

    Public Affairs #

    (202) 366-4570

    Web Address:

    http://www.dot.gov/

    Information:

    Automobile safety; aviation safety; aviation standards: boating; hazardous materials transportation; highway safety; mass transit; railroad safety; shipbuilding; vehicle accident statistics; vehicle crashworthiness.

    Department of the Treasury

    Address:

    15th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW <1>Washington, DC 20220

    Main Phone #

    (202) 622-2000

    Web Address:

    http://www.ustreas.gov/

    Information:

    Coin and medal production; currency production; currency research and development; customs; savings bonds; secret service protection; taxpayer assistance; tax return investigation.

    Environmental Protection Agency

    Address:

    401 M Street SW <1>Washington. DC 20460

    Main Phone #

    (202) 260-2090

    Web Address:

    http://www.epa.gov/

    Information:

    Air and radiation; pesticides and toxic substances; acid deposition; environmental monitoring and quality assurance; solid waste and emergency response; water; noise control.

    Federal Communications Commission

    Address:

    1919 M Street NW <1>Washington, DC 20554

    Main Phone #

    (202) 418-0200

    Web Address:

    http://www.fcc.gov/

    Information:

    Cable television; broadcast stations; radio regulation.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration

    Address:

    600 Independence Avenue SW <1>Washington, DC 20546

    Main Phone #

    (202) 358-0000

    Web Address:

    http://www.nasa.gov/

    Information:

    Aeronautics and space technology; life sciences; astrophysics; earth sciences; solar system exploration; space shuttle payload; Mars observer program; micro gravity science; upper atmosphere research; solar flares.

    National Endowment for the Arts

    Address:

    1100 Pennsylvania Avenue NW <1>Washington, DC 20506

    Main Phone #

    (202) 682-5400

    Web Address:

    http://www.arts. endow.gov/

    Information:

    Literature; museums; folk arts; visual arts; dance arts; theater; opera; history; language.

    National Endowment for the Humanities

    Address:

    1100 Pennsylvania Avenue NW, Room 406 <1>Washington, DC 20506

    Main Phone #

    (202) 606-8400

    Web Address:

    http://www.neh.fed.us/

    Information:

    Literature; museums; folk arts; visual arts; dance arts; music arts; theater arts and musical theater; opera; media arts (film, radio, TV); history; language.

    National Science Foundation

    Address:

    1800 G Street NW Room 527 <1>Washington, DC 20550

    Main Phone #

    (703) 306-1234

    Web Address:

    http://www.nsf.gov/

    Information:

    Atmospheric / astronomical and earth-ocean sciences; mathematical and physical sciences; arctic and Antarctic research; anthropology; engineering; biology; genetic biology; chemistry; computer science; earthquakes; economics; ethics and science; meteorology; galactic and extragalactic astronomy; geography; geology; history and philosophy of science; nutrition; linguistics; marine chemistry; minority research; science and technology to aid the handicapped.

    U.S. Congress

    Web Address:

    http://www.house.gov

    U.S. House of Representatives

    Web Address:

    http://www.house.gov

    U.S. Senate

    Web Address:

    http://www.senate.gov

    The White House

    Address:

    1600 Pennsylvania Avenue <1>Washington DC 20506

    Web Address:

    www.whitehouse.gov

    E-mail:

    president@ whitehouse.gov

    How a Bill Becomes a Law

    Step 1. Senators and Representatives Propose a Bill <1>A proposed law is called a bill. A bill is introduced in each house of Congress. The House of Representatives and the Senate consider a bill separately.

    Step 2. House and Senate Committees Consider the Bill <1>The bill is then sent to appropriate committees for consideration. A committee is made up of a small number of members of the House or Senate. When committees are considering a bill, they hold hearings at which people can speak for or against it.

    Step 3. Committees Change the Bill <1>The committees consider the bill and change it as they see fit. Then they vote on the bill.

    Step 4. The Bill is Debated in the House and Senate <1>If the committees vote in favor of the bill, it goes to the full House and Senate where it is debated and may be changed further. The House and Senate then vote on the bill.

    Step 5. From the House and Senate to Conference Committee <1>If the House and the Senate pass different versions of the same bill, the bill must go to a "conference committee," where differences between the two versions must be worked out.

    Step 6. Final Vote in the House and Senate <1>The House and the Senate then vote on the conference committee version of the bill.

    Step 7. The President Signs the Bill Into Law <1>If the bill passes both houses of Congress, it goes to the President for his signature. Once the President signs a bill, it becomes law.

    Step 8. What if the President Doesn't Sign the Bill? <1>This is called vetoing the bill. A bill that has been vetoed goes back to Congress, where the members can vote on it again. If the House and the Senate pass the bill again with a two-thirds majority vote, the bill becomes law.

    Preamble to the Constitution:

    The Preamble is a brief introduction to the Constitution stating a reason and purpose for the creation of the new republic. A republic is a state or nation in which the supreme power rests in all citizens entitled to vote.

    Preamble to the Constitution <1>We the people of the United States of America, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

    United States Presidents "094c">George Washington <1>1789-1797<1><1>"094d">John Adams <1>1797-1801<1><1>

    "0434">1953-1960

  • "094e">Thomas Jefferson <1>1801-1809<1><1>
  • "094f">James Madison <1>1809-1817<1><1>
  • "0950">James Monroe <1>1817-1825<1><1>
  • "0951">John Quincy Adams <1>1825-1829<1><1>
  • "0952">Andrew Jackson <1>1829-1837<1><1>
  • "0953">Martin VanBuren <1>1837-1841<1><1>
  • "0954">William Henry Harrison <1>1841<1><1>
  • "0955">John Tyler <1>1841-1845<1><1>
  • "0956">James Knox Polk <1>1845-1849<1><1>
  • "0957">Zachary Taylor <1>1849-1850<1><1>
  • "0958">Millard Fillmore <1>1850-1853<1><1>
  • "0959">Franklin Pierce <1>1853-1857<1><1>
  • "095a">James Buchanan <1>1857-1861<1><1>
  • "095b">Abraham Lincoln <1>1861-1865<1><1>
  • "095c">Andrew Johnson <1>1865-1869<1><1>
  • "095d">Ulysses S. Grant <1>1869-1877<1><1>
  • "095e">Rutherford B. Hayes <1>1877-1881<1><1>
  • "095f">James A. Garfield <1>1881<1><1>
  • "0960">Chester A. Arthur <1>1881-1885<1><1>
  • "0961">Grover Cleveland <1>1885-1889<1><1>
  • "0962">Benjamin Harrison <1>1889-1893<1><1>
  • "0961">Grover Cleveland <1>1893-1897<1><1>
  • "0963">William McKinley <1>1897-1901<1><1>
  • "0964">Theodore Roosevelt <1>1901-1909<1><1>
  • "0965">William Howard Taft <1>1909-1913<1><1>
  • "0966">Woodrow Wilson <1>1913-1921<1><1>
  • "0967">Warren G. Harding <1>1921-1923<1><1>
  • "0968">Calvin Coolidge <1>1923-1929<1><1>
  • "0969">Herbert Hoover <1>1929-1933<1><1>
  • "096a">Franklin Delano Roosevelt<1>1933-1945<1><1>
  • "096b">Harry S. Truman <1>1945-1953<1><1>
  • "096c">Dwight D. Eisenhower <1>1953-1961<1><1>
  • "096d">John Fitzgerald Kennedy <1>1961-1963<1><1>
  • "096e">Lyndon Baines Johnson <1>1963-1969<1><1>
  • "096f">Richard Milhous Nixon <1>1969-1974<1><1>
  • "0970">Gerald R. Ford <1>1974-1977<1><1>
  • "0971">James Earl Carter <1>1977-1981<1><1>
  • "0972">Ronald Reagan <1>1981-1989<1><1>
  • "0973">George Bush <1>1989-1993<1><1>
  • "0974">William Jefferson Clinton <1>1993-2000<1><1>
  • "0975">George Walker Bush<1>2000- Assassinated Presidents

    Abraham Lincoln: shot by John Wilkes Booth in Washington, DC on April 14, 1865

    James A. Garfield: shot by Charles J. Guiteau in Washington, DC on July 2, 1881

    William McKinley: shot by Leon Czolgosz in Buffalo, NY on September 6, 1901

    John F. Kennedy: shot by Lee Harvey Oswald in Dallas, TX on November 22, 1963

    Presidential Cabinet Members

    Secretary of Agriculture

    Secretary of Commerce

    Secretary of Defense

    Secretary of Education

    Secretary of Energy

    Secretary of Health and Human Services

    Secretary of Housing and Urban Development

    Secretary of the Interior

    Attorney General

    Secretary of Labor

    Secretary of State (Foreign Affairs)

    Secretary of Transportation

    Secretary of the Treasury

    Secretary of Veterans Affairs

    Presidential Succession The Vice PresidentSpeaker of the House President pro tempore of the Senate Secretary of State Secretary of the Treasury Secretary of DefenseAttorney General Secretary of the Interior Secretary of Agriculture Secretary of Commerce Secretary of Labor Secretary of Health and Human ServicesSecretary of Housing and Urban Development Secretary of Transportation Secretary of Energy Secretary of Education Secretary of Veterans Affairs

    NOTE: An official cannot succeed to the Presidency unless that person meets the Constitutional Requirements

    (see "0196">Requirements for Federal Office)

    Terms and Definitions- Page 2 (E-Z)

    "001b">Back to terms and definitions- page 1

    "0976">Feature

    "0977">Flow

    "0978">Format

    "0979">Fragmentation

    "097a">Gate

    "097b">Gateway

    "097c">GIF

    "097d">High-level Language

    "097e">Http

    "097f">Hub

    "0980">HyperText Markup Language (HTML)

    "0981">Interface

    "0982">Internet

    "0983">Interpreter

    "0984">IP Address

    "0985">IP/ Internet Provider

    "0986">Land

    "0987">Laser

    "0988">Link

    "0989">Local Area Network (LAN)

    "098a">Megahertz (MHz)

    "098b">Microchip

    "098c">Microprocessor, Processor

    "098d">Module

    "098e">Motion Pictures Expert Group (MPEG)

    "098f">MPC

    "0990">Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI)

    "0991">Operating System

    "0992">Optical Storage

    "0993">Pipelining

    "0994">Pit

    "0995">Platter

    "0996">Power On Self-Test (POST)

    "0997">Random Access Memory (RAM)

    "0998">Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC)

    "0999">Read/Write Head

    "099a">Rewritable

    "099b">Read-Only Memory (ROM)

    "099c">Search Engine

    "099d">Server

    "099e">System Files

    "099f">TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol

    "09a0">URL Universal Resource Locator

    "09a1">Virtual Reality

    "09a2">Wave Table Synthesis

    "09a3">Wide Area Network (WAN)

    "09a4">World Wide Web (WWW)

    "001b">Back to terms and definitions- page 1

    3D graphics

    Computer animation in which you can infinitely change the viewpoint.

    Accelerated Graphics Port

    A place you can plug in a video card, giving it fast access to data in the computer's main "0997">RAM.

    Access Time

    Refers to how fast your computer can get information from your hard drive, floppy drive or other kind of drive.

    Active Matrix/ Passive Matrix

    Two kinds of LCD displays. Passive matrix aren't as bright because they aren't pixel specific. Active matrix screens have electrodes leading to each pixel, resulting in a brighter image.

    Adapter or Expansion Card

    A "01d0">circuit board that's put into an expansion slot in order to increase memory, video speed and other functions.

    Adder, Half-adder, Full-adder

    Different arrangement of transistors that perform logical and mathematical functions on data.

    Address Line

    A circuit that matches a specific location in "0997">RAM.

    Analog/ Digital

    Analog is a continuous signal using varying electrical output, like what you'd get from a microphone. Digital uses specific, unique values to create input or output data.

    Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)

    A chip that converts "01ba">analog data to "01ba">digital data that your computer can use.

    Application

    This is why you turn on your computer; to use an application. "09a5">Word processors, "09a6">spread sheets, "01c8">web browsers and games are all examples of applications.

    Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

    The main part of a "01db">CPU that uses the data received by the processor.

    ASCII

    Stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. Uses 256 numbers assigned to the alphabet and other text characters.

    AVI

    One of the most common file formats for combining video and sound. Stands for audio/ video interleave.

    Backbone

    The main computer and "0989">LAN's that form the basic "0982">Internet.

    Bandwidth

    This is the same as data transfer rate, but is usually used to refer specifically to the number of bits that can be sent through a network connection.

    Binary

    Math that uses only two numbers: 0 and 1.

    BIOS (Basic Input/ Output System)

    Software codes in your PC that control some of the basic tasks of moving data from one part of your computer to another.

    Bitmap

    A record of the color value of each pixel in a graphic.

    Boolean Operations

    A logical operation that is based on whether something is true or false. For example, a spell-check function compares a word you've typed with a word in its dictionary to see if the two are the same. It they are, it's true, and the computer does something. If the words are different, the statement is false and the computer does something else.

    Boot or Boot-up

    How your computer "wakes-up" when you turn on the power. It performs routines that gets everything working properly and then loads the "0991">operating system.

    Bridge

    A device connecting two different local area networks ("0989">LANs) of the same or differing types.

    Browser

    A program that displays "0982">Internet pages.

    Bug

    A problem in a computer program that causes the computer to "lock-up", "freeze" or some other malfunction.

    Bus

    "098b">Chips and "01d0">circuitry that oversee and manage the transfer of data between devices.

    Cable

    A bunch of insulated wires carrying electrical signals between computer parts.

    Cache

    A section of high-speed memory that holds data retrieved from "0997">RAM. Your computer only has to look in a specific place for that data, rather than all of your RAM, so it is able to retrieve that information even faster.

    Capacitance

    A way to measure the electrical charge between two conductive plates separated by material that won't conduct electricity

    Capacitor

    A part of your computer that stores an electrical charge.

    CD-Recordable, CD-R

    A drive that can record music and video to CD-ROMs.

    Circuit or Circuit Board

    A fiberglass board that contains printed traces of metal that carry electrical signals.

    Client

    A computer that is dependent on another computer for information. When you read email, your computer is the client because it depends on your "0982">internet service provider's email server (a computer that provides the information) to get your email.

    Clock

    "098b">Microchip that keeps time and synchronizes the functions of the computer (especially the processor). Each vibration of the clock's crystal is like a drumbeat, the faster the beat the faster the computer works (known as megahertz--1MHz means the crystal "beats" one million times a second).

    Cluster

    A group of sectors containing parts of data. This is the smallest unit in which data is stored on a drive.

    CMOS Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor

    A chip that retains important information about what hardware is in your computer, even when the power is turned off.

    Compiler

    A tool for writing software that converts "09a7">source code into code that can be used by an operating system.

    Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC)

    A way of designing processors that takes big, complicated instructions and breaks them down into smaller sections before the processors uses them.

    Compression

    Removing redundant data to reduce the size of a file.

    Contact

    Metal pins or tabs where two parts touch and pass electricity between them.

    Cookie

    The actual disk, made of Mylar, that data is written to in a floppy drive.

    Couple-Charged Devices

    Used in digital cameras and scanners, these miniature devices change energy from light into electrical current.

    CPU Central Processing Unit

    Your computer's "brain." Processes all the information and code used by your computer. Also called the Microprocessor or simply the Processor.

    CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)

    The picture tube in your monitor.

    Data Line

    A circuit, usually in "0997">RAM chips, that carries data and determines whether a bit represents a 0 or 1.

    Data Transfer Rate

    The number of bytes or megabytes that can be moved from a storage devices (usually a drive) to your computer's memory in 1 second.

    Defragging (Optimization)

    Rewrites broken files into sequential sectors to improve access speed.

    See also: "0979">Fragmentation

    Dialog Box

    An on-screen display that prompts the user to pick a function, or make some other kind of response, that tells the program what to do.

    Digital-to-Analog Converter

    A chip that converts "01ba">digital data to "01ba">analog.

    Directory

    Called folders in Windows 95 and 98, this is a way of grouping data files so they can easily be found and accessed.

    Domain

    Computers on a "0989">network that are administered/managed as a single unit.

    Dot Pitch

    Smaller is better when considering the distance between two pixels of the same color.

    Drain

    Electricity flows out of the transistor when it is closed through the drain.

    Drive

    A device used for storing computer files

    Drive Array

    Two or more drives linked together for better efficiency.

    DVD

    Optical storage using two layers on each side of a disk to store data (usually video). Known as a digital<1>versatile disk.

    Email/ Electronic Mail

    Can be sent over the "0982">Internet or a network ("0989">local or "09a3">wide area).

    Expansion Slot

    The connectors on a "01fa">motherboard where an expansion card is placed.

    AGP Expansion Slot

    Accelerated Graphic Port. Speeds up the communication between 3D Graphics cards and the PC's main memory.

    BIOS

    The Basic Input/ Output System is what allows your software and hardware to communicate and work together.

    Case

    The box that holds your computer's parts and protects them from damage and dust.

    CD-ROM Drive

    If you've used a CD player to listen to music, you know about CD-ROM drives. The main difference is the CD-ROM on the computer will have programs, video or other information on it. It can also play your favorite music CDs.

    CD-ROM/DVD Drive

    The same as a CD-ROM drive, but also plays DVDs. Both CD-ROM and DVD disks can't be written to unless you buy special equipment.

    CMOS

    A memory chip that keeps track of your PC's hardware configuration (how all the parts fit and work together), even when the power is off.

    CMOS Battery

    The battery that keeps a small amount power going to the "01f0">CMOS, allowing it to remember what's in its files.

    Fan

    Blows cool air over the hot components in your computer. Make sure your fan isn't blocked so you computer won't overheat.

    Floppy Drive

    This is where you insert your 3.5 inch floppy disks.

    Hard Drive

    This could be called the heart of your computer. Information (data) flows from it into your "098c">microprocessor and back. It's made of hard, spinning disks that store information as magnetic recordings. It holds your start-up files and most of your programs and storage files. It's also commonly referred to as the "C:" drive, but this isn't always the case.

    Heat Sink

    "098c">Microprocessors generate a lot of heat. The Heat Sink helps dissipate this heat so the circuits don't melt.

    IDE Controllers

    Slots built into the "01fa">motherboard to connect cables that send signals to control the floppy, CD-ROM, and hard drives.

    Keyboard Port

    This is where you plug in your keyboard.

    Microprocessor

    A microprocessor, sometimes referred to as simply the processor or CPU, is basically the brains of your computer. When people talk about Pentium or AMD processors, they are talking about your microprocessor.

    Modem

    Whether it's an internal or an external modem (which will be connected to a serial port), this lets you plug a phone line into your computer so you can access the internet, or other information services.

    Motherboard

    The board that holds your "01db">CPU and "01ea">expansion slots.

    Mouse Port

    Also known as a PS2 port, this is where you plug in your "09a8">mouse.

    Parallel Port

    Usually used to connect the printer.

    PCI Expansion Slot

    Peripheral Component Interconnect slots designed for Plug and Play cards. These are expansion cards you buy for your computer that figure out automatically how to work with the existing equipment in your computer.

    Power Supply

    A shielded metal box with a transformer inside. It takes the electricity coming through the power cord and converts it into voltages that can be used by the different parts of the computer. Have you ever played with a toy train? What you used to control the speed of the train is a transformer similar to the one in your computer.

    Real-Time Clock

    Sets the pace and synchronizes the work of all the computer's components. Uses a vibrating crystal to keep time. Have you ever heard of a quartz-crystal watch? Pretty much the same thing.

    Removable Drive

    Commonly known as a JAZZ or ZIP drive, you can store and share much larger amounts of data than you can using only 3.5 inch disks.

    Sound Card

    This does the same thing as a cassette recorder. It records and plays music, but it does it using program code.

    Sound Card Connections

    These connections allow you to attach speakers, microphones or an external sound source directly to your "0201">sound card. On the inside of you computer's case, your CD-ROM drive is hooked to your sound card.

    Tape Drive

    Most computers don't come with a tape drive, but you can add one to your computer if you need to backup large amounts of data.

    USB Ports

    Universal Serial Bus ports help make sure the extras (printers, scanners, etc.) get the memory and other resources they need to work properly.

    Video Card

    Changes image information into electrical currents used by the monitor. The monitor also attaches to your computer here.

    POST (power-on self-test)

    This is the first thing that happens when you turn on your computer. The POST will let you know with a series of beeps (or sometimes with the total absence of a beep) if it finds a problem with the memory or other areas of the computer. Without the POST you'd never be sure that your computer was functioning properly. If everything checks out, your computer beeps just once, and you're ready to load your operating system (typically this is Windows in some form or another).

    Let's get a little more specific:

    Checking the Chips <1>When the electricity starts flowing through your computer, the CPU is cleared of any leftover information and the program counter is set to a specific number. Then the CPU checks the ROM chips and starts the BIOS (basic input/output system: controls how your computer receives and displays data). The ROM BIOS checks itself, and checks the POST program to make sure they're working properly.<1><1>Is Everything Connected? <1>The CPU then checks the circuits that connect all the components with each other by sending signals over what's known as the system BUS. The system's timer is then checked. <1><1>The Display <1>In this next step, you'll finally see something appear on your screen because the memory on the display adapter and the video signals that control the display are checked. The display adapter has its own BIOS, and this is now incorporated into the general BIOS.<1><1>Checking the RAM <1>Now the RAM (read-only memory) is tested. On some PCs you'll see some kind of video display showing the test's progress.<1><1>Is the Keyboard Connected? <1>You have to be able to enter information in your computer, so the CPU now checks to make sure the keyboard is attached properly. It also checks to see if any keys have been pressed. Signals are also sent to the floppy and hard disk drives and "listens" for a response.<1><1>Comparing the Results <1>All the information the POST has gathered up to this point is compared to the information on the CMOS chip. The CMOS is where the "official" record of which components are installed on your PC and any changes found by the POST is recorded and you're then given a chance to enter the setup screen to update the information. <1><1>Putting it all together <1>Some of the parts in your computer have their own BIOS and the POST incorporates these specific BIOS' into the overall BIOS. Sometimes the BIOS codes are copied into the computer's RAM, which is faster than accessing the CMOS for this information. Drivers

    A driver is simply a set of software instructions written to control a specific piece of equipment attached to your computer. There are so many different brand names and peripherals out there the "01c3">BIOS would have to be huge to have the instructions for all these devices. It's faster and easier to have a smaller BIOS and several of these drivers available to use when they are needed. Any peripheral piece of equipment you attach to your computer could come with it's own driver.

    Let's say you've just picked the print function of your software. First, the operating system checks to ensure everything is okay with the files. If everything is ready to go, the operating system finds the device driver (if it needs one) and attaches it to the BIOS file. Control of the file is then given to the BIOS and driver.

    The file is then sent to the printer, which interprets the instructions sent by the driver and BIOS and prints your hardcopy

    Interrupts

    Whenever you click your mouse, type a letter, or data comes through a port, a special signal (an interrupt) is sent to a chip called the interrupt controller. This gets the processor's immediate attention, interrupting whatever the processor was doing.

    The processor sets aside what it was doing, marking it's place by putting an address in a special part of the RAM called a stack. Then the processor looks at the number associated with the interrupt signal. Using the number it finds, the processor looks at the interrupt table, a section of RAM that holds interrupt vectors, and find the memory address of the interrupt.

    Once the computer finds the interrupt's address, it executes the instructions it finds there. For Example, if you had typed the letter "Q" on your keyboard, the instructions would direct the monitor to display a "Q". When the BIOS instructions have been completed, the BIOS sends a message called an interrupt return (IRET) to the processor, which goes back to what it was doing before it was interrupted.

    Programming Languages

    Imagine trying to communicate with your best friend without using a language. It's pretty close to impossible. Without language, human beings can't give, receive or interpret information very efficiently at all. The same is true for computers. Computer languages integrate math much more than human languages do, allowing them to be very precise. But a computer language gets lost when it comes to the subtle meanings of human languages.

    "09a7">Low Level Languages

    "09a9">Compilers

    "09aa">Assembly

    "09ab">High Level Languages

    Building Software

    There are many components used in the process of building software. The following definitions are some of the most important necessary in this process.

    Kernals & Subroutines<1>A single file can contain a whole program, or it can contain a master program (sometimes called a kernal) that calls up subprograms (routines) in order to accomplish its task. The kernal and subroutines work together to give the program a way to receive input from keyboards, ports, files and memory, rules for handling input data, and output to the screen, ports, files and memory.

    Variables<1>When you input information to a program, it usually stored as a variable-information that doesn't have to remain the same. Once the program has the variable it can manipulate it according to commands. Text is usually parsed (passed on) to another part of the program, while numbers are commonly manipulated according to one or more mathematical formulas. Programs commonly rely on the PC's "01c3">BIOS to handle many of the input and output functions (such as recognizing keystrokes from the keyboard). The program still has to have some commands that enables the BIOS services.

    Branching <1>Branching allows the program to perform different jobs under varying circumstances. A program hardly ever runs in a straight line from start to finish, and a branch allows a new routine to be run as needed. Branching and boolean logic are often used together.

    Boolean Logic <1>Boolean logic allows the program to say "if this occurs, then do this". For example, a variable-apple-is typed into the computer. The program looks at that variable with an "if...then" statement. "If the variable is apple, then display a picture of an apple on the monitor". "If the variable is banana, then display a picture of a banana on the monitor".

    Flow Chart <1>Before beginning work on a new program, many programmers use a flow chart to lay out all the connections among the different parts of a program. This essentially is a map illustrating the program.

    Software Applications

    A software application is simply any software that isnt your "0991">operating system. There are almost countless different applications available, each designed to process and display data in a form people can use. Most software generally falls into the following categories: Database Managers, Word Processing, Graphics, Multimedia, Communications and Utilities.

    "09ac">Database Managers

    "09a5">Word Processors

    "09ad">Graphics Software

    "09ae">Multimedia

    "09af">Communications

    "09b0">Utilities

    "09b1">Viruses

    What a Transistor is

    A transistor is the basic building block of electronics. All "098b">microchips are built from hundreds and thousands of transistors arranged to process binary (0s and 1s) information. A transistor is made of a layer of electrically conductive polysilicon buried in the middle of nonconductive silicon dioxide (the main component of sand) connected to a power source by an aluminum lead.

    On or Off, True or False

    A transistor is either has a current flowing through it or it doesnt. This means it can tell whether a bit of data is a zero or a one. Or the data could be seen as a true or false statement. Or it is simply on or off. This may seem ridiculously simple method of getting things done, but this binary principle is the basis for everything a computer does.

    Binary Numbers

    In binary language (the language of computers) numbers, letters and symbols are represented by a series of 1's or 0's. Here's a very brief example of some binary numbers:

    Decimal

    Binary

    0.

    0

    1.

    1

    2.

    10

    3.

    11

    4.

    100

    5.

    101

    6.

    110

    7.

    111

    8.

    1000

    9.

    1001

    10.

    1010 16, 32, and More Bits

    Older processors that are referred to as 16 bit can process numbers that are up to 16 binary bits long. The highest number this can represent is 65,536. Some processors can handle up to 32 bits, which equates to a high number of 4,294,967,206. 32 bit processors can move information faster because fewer binary strands have to be broken down into smaller strands in order to be read and processed.

    Logic Gates (half and full adders)

    Transistors can be arranged into different combinations to handle "01c5">boolean logic. These combinations are known as logic gates. The gates can be combined into arrays (groups) called half adders, which can be combined into full adders.

    Switches

    Transistors can also be used as switches to allow a small amount of energy to trigger a larger energy flow. Sort of like flipping a light switch that turns on a spotlight.

    Two Brains

    When you use a computer, there are two brains involved: yours and the computers. The computers brain is the "098c">microprocessor, and all the other gadgets (the drives, monitors, printers, keyboards, etc.) exist so the microprocessor can interface with you and your brain.

    Throwing Switches

    In the sections on transistors and RAM, weve seen that computer chips are made of thousands of "0211">switches that are always on or off. Even at the lightning speeds of a computer, throwing all these switches takes some time. What if you could throw all the switches that would add, lets say, the numbers two and two together? It would be faster than throwing every switch involved at once. Thats the main function of the microprocessor.

    Coprocessors

    As fast as a "098c">microprocessor is, were always demanding that data be processed even faster. One way to accomplish this is to relieve the processor of some its duties. Other processors were developed to take over some of the duties of the "01db">CPU. 3D graphics, video and sound commonly have coprocessors that handle these tasks. Your keyboard might also contain a processor that handles the signals sent from your keyboard to the CPU.

    Pentium Processors

    Personal Computer speeds greatly increased with the introduction of the Pentium family of "098c">microprocessors. A "01db">CPU within a CPU, known as the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), is designed to process all the data associated with whole numbers. The Pentium processor actually has two ALUs, allowing it to crunch (process) two sets of numbers simultaneously. Pentiums also have a separate unit to handle floating-point numbers (decimal point numbers), as did the 80486 processors (the predecessor to the Pentium).

    "09b2">64-The Pentiums' Lucky Number

    "09b3">Caches

    "09b4">Pipelining

    "09b5">Different Kinds of Pentiums

    DRAM

    (Dynamic Random Access Memory)

    For many years, DRAM was the most common type of memory chip used. The stored charge on a capacitor would leak over time and had to be refreshed about every 1,000th of a second. The method of storage was called "Dynamic".

    EDO RAM

    (Extended Data Out Random Access Memory)

    This kind of memory can send data at the same time its receiving instructions regarding the next bit of data it should retrieve.

    VRAM

    (Video Random Access Memory)

    Specifically designed for processing video data. VRAM have two ports so the next video data that is going to be displayed can be retrieved while the monitor is simultaneously being refreshed.

    SRAM

    (Static Random Access Memory)

    Doesnt need to have its charges constantly refreshed. Usually faster, but is more is expensive, so its used for speed critical portions of memory, such as the cache.

    SDRAM

    (Synchronous DRAM)

    Most commonly used with Pentium processors, this type of RAM is designed to keep up with the bus speed associated with fast processors. It has two internal banks of transistors; one bank gets ready to retrieve data while the other bank is actually accessing data.

    SIMM

    (Single In-Line Memory Modules)

    Memory chips that have been put on a small circuit board that can be attached to the mother board, expanding the available RAM.

    DIMM

    (Dual In-Line Memory Modules)

    These use connector pins on both sides of the circuit board to increase the amount of memory that can be plugged into a single connector to increase the size of the data path for faster transfers.

    ECC

    (Error-Correcting Code)

    ECC is RAM that uses extra bits to detect errors. Can include memory types such as DRAM, SDRAM and DIMM.

    Old Fashioned Storage

    Data storage has gone from punch cards to magnetic tape to hard drive (which first appeared in 1957 and needed 50 24-inch disks to store 5MB of information) to floppy and zip drives. Hard drives have evolved from a piece of equipment weighing one ton to a drive that weighs less than a double-A battery (and it holds 340MB of data).

    New (er) Storage

    Simply put, data storage has evolved tremendously. It is abundant and cheap, but there really hasn't been a lot of new ideas developed. Hard drives and floppy drives have become more efficient and--in the case of Zip drives--portable. This isn't to say that there haven't been any new developments; lasers used in CD-ROM and DVD drives are much more sensitive than metal read/write heads.

    Hard Drives

    In the 1980's you had quite a bit of memory space on your hard drive if you had a capacity of 10MB. Things change. Today it's not unusual to have 10 to 20 gigabytes (10,000,000,000 to 20,000,000,000 bytes) on a good PC. Even average PCs often have 4 to 8 gigabyte hard drives.

    Today's hard drives are often smaller than a 3.5 inch floppy drive, have access times of as little as 8 milliseconds, are inexpensive and commonplace.

    With the low price (which seems to always get lower as the disk capacity gets bigger) and availability of these hard drives, small businesses and even home enthusiasts can set up hard disk arrays. An array is two or more hard drives all accessed by the same computer (or computers). By breaking up jobs into smaller pieces and writing those pieces across several drives, the arrays enable the jobs to get done faster, and it helps to restore data if one of the disks in the arrays happens to crash (which doesn't happen often).

    "09b6">How Hard Drives Work

    Floppy Drives

    You might think that with the super huge hard drives, optical drives, DVD drives and the other fancy storage devices that exist today the need for a floppy disk would be dwindling. Well, you'd be right, but it will be a long time before floppy disks become extinct. They're too easy and convenient to use, and often have enough space for most files (especially text files--graphics and programs are sometimes too big).

    "09b7">How Floppy Drives Work

    "09b8">Write Protection

    "09b9">The Stepper Motor

    Computer Displays

    A PC monitor displays dots of varying sizes of red, green and blue in patterns that let your eye see an image. If you look at a color photograph in the newspaper under a magnifying glass you'll see basically the same thing. The dots on the monitor, however, are smaller and can be combined (on higher end monitors with the right video cards) to make millions of colors.

    A graphics file is sent to the monitor as a series of zeros and ones, telling the monitor the specifics of what and where to display the images. Way back in the old days--ten years or so ago--the PC's processor did the work of interpreting the graphics file and sending the results to the monitor. Most computers now have graphics cards that handle this interpretation, doing it faster than the processor, but also allowing the processor to work faster because it doesn't have to worry about the extra work.

    Computer Ports

    When you look at the back of your computer and see all the strangely-shaped connectors that hook up with your printer, joystick, scanners and other peripherals you're looking at the ports. Originally, ports came in two basic flavors: parallel and serial ports.

    "09ba">Parallel Ports

    "09bb">Serial Ports

    "09bc">USBs

    "09bd">Other Ports

    Game Controllers

    Game controllers have advanced from a box with a stick coming out the top of it to Joysticks that look as if they've been taken out of the cockpit of the latest supersonic fighter. Specialized controllers have been developed for software that just don't work right with joysticks, maybe it's a racing game that needs a steering wheel. All these controllers, even though they may look different, essentially work the same as a "09be">joystick.

    Keyboards

    If your keyboard is well designed, you probably never think twice about it. But it is the single piece of your equipment that gets used by you the most. Some keys were added to the original design but the biggest change was a split-board design (by Microsoft) that had good ergonomics; they were more in line with how our arms naturally rest on a desktop. It's nice, but not likely to replace the old keyboards any time soon.

    When you press a key on your keyboard it causes a change in the amount of current flowing through a circuit associated with that particular key. The keyboard microprocessor is constantly scanning the circuits connected to the keys and know when the current has changed. The set of signals unique to the key that's been pressed are sent to the computer's BIOS. There is a failsafe that screens out accidental fluctuations in current by scanning the circuits hundreds of times a second and only reacting to fluctuations that last for two or more scans.

    Two scan codes are assigned to each key showing when it is pressed and released. The appropriate interrupt signal is sent to the BIOS, which reads the scan code and sends a signal to the keyboard telling it that it's okay to clear that particular scan code from its buffer.

    Then you're ready to press another key, or set of keys.

    Modems

    A modem is the bridge between the analog signals coming over a telephone line and the digital signals needed by the computer. It can also reverse itself and convert the digital signals into analog wave signals that can be sent along the phone line to another modem connected to anther computer.

    The two modems (or more) connected by the phone lines transmit data to and from each other at a speed expressed in bits per second (bps). 300 bps used to be a blazing speed for most modems in the early 1980's. Things started getting fast when modems with 26,600bps were developed. Most of the faster modems used today aren't actually modems, because they deal exclusively with digital signals sent over cable and DSL lines.

    Pointing Devices

    Pointing Devices were developed to allow users to give the computer instructions without using the keyboard. The most common pointing device is the mouse, and anyone who has done even a little work on a PC has used one. There are other pointing devices. Joysticks were developed to allow gameplayers to control movement on the screen, and although they work basically the same way as a mouse, they just don't feel right for most functions. Touch screens, where you use your finger or a special light pen to make choices and move the cursor around the monitor, are to tiring to use for very long. The most successful of these new pointers are the eraserhead point devices, usually used on laptop computers.

    These pointers can't effectively replace the keyboard in getting data and instructions to the computer, but they are a great supplemental input device and can help speed up some keyboard functions (for example: highlighting large areas of text to be altered).

    "09a8">Mouses

    "09bf">Touchpads

    "09c0">Pointing Sticks

    Scanners and Optical Character Recognition

    There are three basic types of scanners and the major differences involve how the scan heads and paper move past each other. Sheet-fed scanners have mechanical rollers that move the paper past the scan head. Flatbed scanners move the heads past the paper, and hand-held scanner rely on your hand to move the scan head across the paper.

    A light source shines on the piece of paper. Blank or white spaces reflect light more intensely than inked or colored areas. As the scan head move past the paper is picks up the light reflected from a specific part of the page no larger than 1/90,000 of a square inch. The reflected light is passed through a system of mirrors to keep the light beams aligned with a lens. The lens focuses the beams of light onto diodes that translate the amount of light into a corresponding amount of voltage. If the scanner can read color, the light is reflected through red, green or blue filters in front of diodes. An ADC stores each analog reading of the voltages as a digital number and sends the information to the software in the PC, where it's stored in a format the graphics or optical character recognition program can use.

    OCR <1>Optical character recognition programs take the bitmapped information collected by the scanner are compared pixel by pixel to templates that the program holds in its memory. The characters that aren't recognized go through a more intensive and time-consuming process known as feature extraction. This still might not recognize all the characters; those that remain are either replaced with a character (like -, # or @) and the program quits. Or, the program displays a magnified bitmap and asks you to type in the number or letter before it quits. Most OCR programs then ask you if you want to save the pages in a file format recognized by the most popular word processors.

    Turning Energy into Data

    In the analog world--the one we live in--things seem to move smoothly at predictable rates. Even though a movie might be made of thousands of images, they seem to actually move. That doesn't happen in the digital world--the world where modern computers live. The volume on your radio doesn't smoothly increase, it increases in finite increments. The light is on or it's off.

    Machines love the digital world, but they have to interface (communicate, get along with) those of us living an analog existence.

    "09c1">ADC

    "09c2">DAC

    "09c3">CDC

    "09c4">Buses

    "09c5">The King of Buses

    CD-ROM and DVD

    A CD-ROM drive contains a laser that project a concentrated beam of light that is even more tightly focused by a lens and a focusing coil. The beam penetrates a protective layer of plastic and reflects of the disk, the surface of which alternates between lands and pits--flat surfaces and tiny depressions. Again they are ones and zeros. The light is collected by a light sensing diode and generates a small electrical voltage. The voltages are matched against a timing circuit to generate a stream of binary numbers the computer can understand.

    DVDs also use a laser beam to read the surface of the disk; the light is of a shorter wavelength than that used by the CD-ROM. This makes the beam smaller, which is necessary since the indentations on the DVD are smaller. Light that is reflected from a flat area is reflected through a prism to a device that converts it to bursts of electricity. The reason you can get so much more data onto a DVD than a CD-ROM is there are two layers of lands and pits on each side of the disk. The first layer is transparent, and the beam can be focused through it to read a second, opaque layer. Again, the light signals received are converted into binary numbers.

    Multimedia Sound

    The sound available on today's computer can be attributed to the rabid desire of games players for realism. Explosions and screams had to sound like they were really happening. Digital sound processing can provide you with CD quality music.

    Sound cards receive sound in its natural analog signal and convert it into digital signal via the ADC chip. A ROM chip holds the instructions for handling the digital signals. The ADC then sends the binary information to a digital signal processor that relieves the computer's main CPU from having to do the processing chores involved with the sound. A digital file is created, and usually compressed and stored on the hard drive.

    To play the sound, the .WAV or .MP3 file is retrieved from the disk and is sent to the DSP, which decompresses the data and sends it to the DAC, which sends the analog current to the PC's speakers.

    Multimedia Video

    A camera and microphone capture the images and sounds of a scene and sends those signals to a video-capture adapter card, which is another ADC device. The signal is compressed to reduce the amount of data needed to recreate the video signals. When the video signal is saved to the disk, Windows mixes the sound and images together, saving additional space on the disk. A file of this type is known as an .AVI file.

    When files are read, they are decompressed and the signals are sent through a DAC device which translates the digital signals to analog signals that are sent and played on the screen and over the speakers.

    LANs

    A LAN (local area network) is a computer network usually located in one office or building. The connections between these computers are normally made with specialized cables (one of the most popular is called ethernet). Besides being connected to each other, computers in a LAN might also be connected to a mainframe computer or a server.

    WANs

    A WAN (wide area network) is similar to a LAN, but instead of being located between the computers in one office or building, the networked computers can be located in several buildings, states, or countries. The connections between these computers were normally made over phone lines, but as the amounts of data being transferred grew, faster methods and greater bandwidth were required. New technologies, such as fiber optic cable and satellite transmissions, have been developed and used by today's WANs and the biggest WAN of all: the internet.

    Servers

    A key component of any network (including the internet) are computers known as file servers or servers. A server is a computer on a network dedicated to handling specific functions. You might have a computer in a large company that just handles the email sent and received by the company. Another computer in the same company might have all the printers connected to it and ensures that the report you just sent to the printer gets to the correct printer. Of course, other computers in the company could be dedicated to handling other internet traffic.

    Connecting to the Internet

    To connect to the Internet from your home your computer will first have to have some sort of modem connection to a communication line (it used to be only a phone line, but DSL and cable lines and even satellite transmissions are now available to the home user; these provide much higher data transfer rates than analog phone lines).

    Every message that you send over the Internet is broken up into bunches of discreet packages of data. Your local host (in this case, your ISP) connects to another network and sends those packages to it. If that network is far away, it might have to use a router, which is a device that connects networks. The router inspects your package to see where it's going and then determines, based on current traffic, the best path to send it on.

    A set of protocols, or rules, create packets that contain the data, error checking and the addresses of where your data is headed. If your packet's destination isn't on your wide area network, the router sends the request to a network access point (NAP) which can send your data along the internet's backbone (a collection of supercomputers linked together). Through this backbone, and a series of repeaters that amplify the data signal, and hubs, bridges and gateways until your data eventually gets to where its going.

    ISPs

    Unless you have a lot of money and are some sort of computer genius, when you get onto the internet you will dial and connect to a portal (like a door or gateway) to the internet. This is usually an ISP--Internet Service Provider. You ISP will have a local number for you to dial and connect to their servers which handle the vast amounts of data travelling the internet.

    URLs

    One thing that is very useful to have when you want to get somewhere, or to send mail to someone, is an address. A URL (universal resource locater) is simply an electronic address used on the internet.

    Domain Names

    A Domain Names is the first part of a URL; it's like specifying the city where a certain address is found. It will usually look something like this: www.domainname.org.

    Sending Email

    You create a message to send to your best friend in Russia. When you hit the send button, it is encoded and turned into ASCII text. The software you used (known as client software) contacts the ISP's server via modem or network connection. This connects to an SMTP server. This server acknowledges it has been contacted and the client tells the server it has a message to be sent. The SMTP replies with a message that says it's okay to send now or to wait until the server's not so busy.

    When the message can be sent, the SMTP contacts a domain name server which picks a route to send the message along and tells the SMTP about it. The SMTP sends the mail which travels over internet routers until it reaches your friend's SMTP server. The message is transferred to yet another server called a POP server (post office protocol) that holds it until your friend asks to read it.

    Using his client software, your friend logs on to his POP server, which retrieves it and transmits it to your friend's computer, and your friend reads it and is extremely pleased.

    Internet Audio and Video

    You've found a sound file you want to listen to and request that it be sent to your computer. The server you've contacted sends a metafile to your computer, which sets things up on your PC so it can play the audio. A stream of packets begin to arrive at your computer which checks them for errors (using the metafile instructions). If the packets are okay, they are decompressed and the results are sent to a small area of RAM called a buffer. When the buffer is full, the audio player starts to process the file, sending it through your sound card and on to your speaker while other packets are still being processed and set to the buffer. This process can be continued for hours, which allows people to listen to their favorite radio stations anywhere around the world.

    Streaming video works similarly to streaming audio, although the files are much bigger since they usually contain sound and images together. Also, a corrupted video packet can cause troubles that carry over to other frames. The software compares new frames with other ones to detect and fix errors. The correct frames are then displayed on your monitor.

    Terms and Definitions A-B

    "09c6">Abstract Noun

    "09c7">Abbreviate

    "09c8">Abbreviation

    "09c9">Acronym

    "09ca">Action Verb

    "025f">Adjective

    "0260">Adverb

    "09cb">Adverbial Conjunction

    "09cc">Antecedent

    "09cd">Antonym

    "09ce">Apostrophe

    "09cf">Appositive

    "09d0">Article

    "09d1">Assonance

    "09d2">Autobiography

    "09d3">Auxiliary Verbs

    "09d4">Bibliography

    "09d5">Biography

    "09d6">Brackets

    Terms and Definitions C-D

    "09d7">Capital Letter

    "09d8">Capitalization

    "09d9">Case

    "0261">Clause

    "09da">Collective Noun

    "09db">Colon

    "09dc">Comma

    "09dd">Common Adjective

    "09de">Common Noun

    "09df">Complete Predicate

    "09e0">Complete Subject

    "09e1">Complex Sentence

    "09e2">Compound Noun

    "09e3">Compound Predicate

    "09e4">Compound Sentence

    "09e5">Compound Subject

    "09e6">Compound Word

    "09e7">Concrete Noun

    "0262">Conjunction

    "09e8">Consonants

    "09e9">Contraction

    "09ea">Coordinating Conjunction

    "09eb">Correlative Conjunction

    "09ec">Dangling Participle

    "09ed">Dash

    "09ee">Declarative Sentence

    "09ef">Demonstrative Adjectives

    "09f0">Demonstrative Pronouns

    "09f1">Dewey Decimal System

    "09f2">Direct Object

    "09f3">Dividing Words (Rules)

    "09f4">Double Interior Consonant

    Terms and Definitions E-F

    "09f5">e.g.

    "09f6">Ellipsis

    "09f7">Epithet

    "09f8">Exclamation Point

    "09f9">Exclamatory Sentences

    "09fa">Gerund

    "09fb">Gerund Phrase

    "09fc">Grammar

    "09fd">Helping Verb

    "09fe">Hieroglyphic

    "09ff">Homonym

    "0a00">Hyphen

    Terms and Definitions I-L

    "0a01">i.e.

    "0a02">Imperative Sentence

    "0a03">Indefinite Pronoun

    "0a04">Indirect Object

    "0a05">Infinitive

    "0a06">Infinitive Phrase

    "0a07">Initial

    "0a08">Intensive Pronoun

    "0a09">Interior Consonant

    "0263">Interjection

    "0a0a">Interrogative Pronoun

    "0a0b">Interrogative Sentence

    "0a0c">Irregular Verb

    "0a0d">Linguistics

    "0a0e">Linking Verbs

    "0a0f">Lower Case

    Terms and Definitions M-O

    "0a10">Metaphor

    "0a11">Meter

    "0a12">Morpheme

    "0a13">Morphemics

    "0a14">Morphology

    "0264">Noun

    "0a15">Number

    "0a16">Object of the Preposition

    "0a17">Object Pronoun

    "0a18">Onomatopoeia

    "0a19">Oxymoron

    Terms and Definitions P-R

    "0a1a">Paragraph

    "0a1b">Parenthesis

    "0a1c">Participial Phrase

    "0265">Participle

    "0a1d">Past Participle

    "0a1e">Period

    "0a1f">Personal Pronoun

    "0a20">Personify

    "0a21">Philology

    "0a22">Phonetics

    "0266">Phrase

    "0a23">Pictograph

    "0a24">Plural Noun

    "0a25">Poem

    "0a26">Poetry

    "0a27">Possessive Pronoun

    "0a28">Predicate

    "0a29">Predicate Adjective

    "0a2a">Predicate Noun

    "0a2b">Prefix

    "0a2c">Prepositional Phrase

    "0267">Preposition

    "0a2d">Present Participle

    "0a2e">Principal Clause

    "0268">Pronoun

    "0a2f">Proper Adjective

    "0a30">Proper Noun

    "0a31">Prose

    "0a32">Punctuate

    "0a33">Punctuation Marks

    "0a34">Question Mark

    "0a35">Quotation Marks

    "0a36">Reflexive Pronouns

    "0a37">Relative Pronoun

    "0a38">Regular Verb

    Terms and Definitions S-Z

    "0a39">Semantics

    "0a3a">Semicolon

    "0269">Sentence

    "0a3b">Simile

    "0a3c">Simple Predicate

    "0a3d">Simple Subject

    "0a3e">Singular Noun

    "0a3f">Spelling

    "0a40">Split Infinitive

    "026a">Subject

    "0a41">Subject Pronoun

    "0a42">Subjunctive Mood

    "0a43">Subordinate Clause

    "0a44">Subordinating Conjunction

    "0a45">Statistical Units

    "0a46">Suffix

    "0a47">Syllable

    "0a48">Synonym

    "0a49">Syntax

    "0a4a">Title

    "0a4b">Upper Case

    "026b">Verb

    "0a4c">Verb Tenses

    "0a4d">Verb Phrase

    "0a4e">Verbals

    "0a4f">Virgule

    "0a50">Vowel

    "0a51">Vowel Digraph

    "0a52">Who/Whom

    "0a53">Writing

    Capitalize Academic Degrees

    Capitalize the letters in an academic degree. <1>EX: A.B., M.D., M.A., Ph.D., LL.D.

    Capitalizing Book Titles

    Capitalize all words except conjunctions, articles (a, an, or the), and prepositions in the title of books, articles, plays, poems, etc. <1>EX: <1>Cat on a Hot Tin Roof <1>Newsweek <1>New York Times

    Capitalization of Buildings/Streets, etc.

    Capitalize names of specific organizations, buildings, streets, etc. <1>EX: <1>Sears Tower <1>Central Park <1>Route 86 <1>555 Washington Street

    Capitalization of Days

    Capitalize the names of holidays, months of the year, holy days, and days of the months. <1>EX: <1>Labor Day, Halloween <1>November, December <1>Hanukkah, Christmas <1>Monday, Thursday

    HINT: Do not capitalize the names of the seasons: summer, winter, fall, spring.

    Capitalization of Deities/ Sacred Books

    Capitalize the names of deities and sacred books. <1>EX: <1>the Messiah <1>the Talmud <1>the Holy Bible

    Capitalization of Government Departments

    Capitalize the names of departments, bureaus, etc., of the federal government. <1>EX: <1>Department of Army <1>Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) <1>Health Care Financing Administration (HCFA)

    Capitalizing Direct Quotations

    Capitalize the first word of a direct quotation unless it is closely woven into the sentence. <1>EX: <1>Karen asked, "Do you know where Scott is today?" <1>My grandmother always says "Honesty is the best policy" when she knows I am not telling the truth.

    Capitalization of Epithets

    Capitalize all epithets used as a substitute for a name. <1>EX: <1>Ivan the Terrible <1>Eric the Red

    Capitalization of Genus

    Capitalize the genus (but not species) in binomial nomenclature. Binomial is a two-word scientific name of a plant or animal, and nomenclature is the system of names used in science. <1>EX: <1>Macaco mulatta <1>Rana pipiens

    Capitalization of Geographic Locations

    Capitalize the standard names of geographic divisions, regions, districts, and localities. <1>EX: <1>South Pole <1>Midwest <1>Old World

    Capitalization of Geological Eras

    Capitalize the names of geological eras, periods, etc. <1>EX: <1>Bronze Age <1>Paleozoic Era

    Capitalization of Historical Events

    Capitalize the names of historical events, periods, documents, etc. <1>EX: <1>World War I <1>Middle Ages <1>Magna Carta

    Capitalization of Judicial Bodies

    Capitalize the names of judicial and legislative bodies.

    EX: Parliament

    Congress

    Capitalization of Languages

    Capitalize the names of languages and periods in the history of languages.

    EX: Russian, Japanese

    Old English

    Capitalization of Laws, Acts and Treaties

    Capitalize the names of treaties, laws, acts, etc.

    EX: Versailles Treaty

    Sherman Antitrust Law

    Homestead Act

    Capitalization of Personifications

    Capitalize personifications.

    EX: I met Jealousy in the lunchroom

    Capitalization of Planets, Stars etc

    Capitalize the names of planets, stars, and constellations.

    EX: Mars

    Milky Way

    Polaris

    Capitalizing Poems

    Capitalize the first word of each line in a poem.

    EX: Afternoon on a Hill

    I will be the gladdest thing

    Under the sun!

    I will touch a hundred flowers

    And not pick one.

    I will look at cliffs and clouds

    With quiet eyes,

    Watch the wind bow down the grass,

    And the grass rise.

    And when lights begin to show

    Up from the town,

    I will mark which must be mine,

    And then start down!

    - Edna St. Vincent Millay

    Capitalization of Compass Points

    Do not capitalize words designating points of the compass unless they refer to a specific region. <1>EX: Santa Clara, California, is fifty miles south of San Francisco.

    Capitalization of Political Entities

    Capitalize the names of political entities, parties, divisions, etc.

    EX: Holy Roman Empire

    Democrat

    French Republic

    Capitalization of Popular Names

    Capitalize the popular names of regions, districts, and localities.

    EX: the Windy City

    the Bible Belt

    Capitalization of Presidents

    Capitalize all references to the President and Vice President of the United States.

    EX: President Clinton

    Vice President Gore

    the President

    Capitalize terms of relationship when used before proper names

    Capitalize terms of relationship when used before proper names.

    EX: We are having a party and Mother is coming to visit.

    My grandfather is coming for dinner.

    Capitalizing Proper Noun Derivatives

    Do not capitalize words derived from proper nouns and adjectives having a special meaning.

    EX: china plates

    Capitalizing Proper Nouns

    Capitalize proper nouns and proper adjectives.

    EX: John F. Kennedy

    Mexico, Japan

    the Finnish language

    Capitalizibg Religious Denominations

    Capitalize the names of religious denominations.

    EX: Roman Catholic, Buddhism

    Capitalizibg Rivers, Mountains, etc

    Capitalize the names of rivers, mountains, lakes, oceans, etc.

    EX: Klamath River

    Rocky Mountains

    Lake Ontario

    Pacific Ocean

    Capitalizing Salutations

    Capitalize the first word of the salutation and of the complimentary close of a letter.

    EX: Dear Mr. Smith,

    Sincerely yours,

    Capitalizing Sentences

    Capitalize the first word of a sentence.

    EX: She is excited to begin college.

    Capitalization of Titles

    Capitalize titles (military, civil, honorary, noble, etc.) when they precede a name.

    EX: General Custer

    King Arthur

    Mayor Anderson

    Capitalization of Trademarks

    Capitalize trademarks.

    EX: Pepsi, Xerox, Polaroid

    Capitalization of Peoples, Tribes, and Races

    Capitalize the names of peoples, tribes, races, etc.

    EX: African American

    Bantu

    Maori

    Dutch

    Common Words and Phrases<1>(page 2)

    "002c">back to page 1

    mano a mano [Spanish]: a direct confrontation or conflict. <1>EX: He handled that guy mano a mano."025e">Play Now!

    mea culpa [Latin]: I am to blame.<1>EX: He knew he was guilty and therefore offered his mea culpa. <1>"025e">Play Now!

    memento mori [Latin]: a reminder that you must die. <1>EX: For Mary, the death of her mother was a memento mori. <1>"025e">Play Now!

    modus operandi [Latin]: a method of operating. <1>EX: His modus operandi is to maintain an open door policy. <1>"025e">Play Now!

    nom de plume [French]: pen name. <1>EX: Before writing, the aspiring writer first decided on a nom de plume. <1>"025e">Play Now!

    nota bene [Italian]: note well; take notice. <1>EX: She drew attention to the important note by underlining the words nota bene. <1>"025e">Play Now!

    persona non grata [Latin]: unacceptable or unwelcome person. <1>EX: When he was accused of stealing, he became persona non grata among his friends. <1>"025e">Play Now!

    pro bono [Latin]: done or donated without charge; free. <1>EX: It was personally fulfilling for the lawyer to work pro bono. <1>"025e">Play Now!

    quid pro quo [Latin]: something for something; an equal exchange. <1>EX: She and her friend babysat for each other quid pro quo. <1>"025e">Play Now!

    sans souci [French]: carefree. <1>EX: On vacation they felt sans souci. <1>"025e">Play Now!

    savoir faire [French]: the ability to say and do the correct thing. <1>EX: She always throws a party with impressive savoir faire. <1>"025e">Play Now!

    sic transit gloria mundi [Latin]: thus passes away the glory of the world. <1>EX: Watching his aging dog shuffle slowly across the yard to retrieve a stick, the man thought, sic transit gloria mundi. <1>"025e">Play Now!

    sine qua non [Latin]: indispensable. <1>EX: Bananas are sine qua non in banana bread. <1>"025e">Play Now!

    terra incognita [Latin]: unknown territory. <1>EX: While hiking in the Rocky Mountains, he suddenly found himself terra incognita. <1>"025e">Play Now!

    tout le monde [French]: everybody; everyone of importance.<1>EX: I never miss the Sundance Film Festival because it is always attended by tout le monde. <1>"025e">Play Now!

    veni, vidi, vici [Latin]: I came, I saw, I conquered. <1>EX: After a big win the athlete stated, "veni, vidi, vici." <1>"025e">Play Now!

    verboten [German]: forbidden, as by law; prohibited. <1>EX: In this building, smoking is verboten. <1>"025e">Play Now!

    zeitgeist [German]: the spirit of the time. <1>EX: At the party, she attributed her obnoxious behavior to the zeitgeist. <1>"025e">Play Now!

    "002c">back to Common Words page 1

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    Adjective

    A word that describes nouns and pronouns. Adjectives modify (tell more about) nouns and answer one of three questions about the noun or pronoun.

    What kind?<1>EX: Sally watched the magnificent whale glide through the water.<1><1>How many?<1>EX: Samuel took six cookies to school.<1><1>Which one?<1>EX: Fred wore the red shirt to school.

    There are four types of adjectives:

    Common Adjectives: describe nouns in a general way including size, shape, color, and character.<1>EX: big, round, yellow, friendly<1><1>Proper Adjectives: always capitalized and created from proper nouns.<1>EX: American, World Series<1><1>Demonstrative Adjectives: these are the same words as demonstrative pronouns, but if used with a noun they answer the questions which one?<1>EX: This cake is good, but those cupcakes are better. <1>EX: That dog is hers.<1><1>Predicate Adjectives: occur in the predicate and describe the subject.<1>EX: The boy was silent. Adverb

    An adverb modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb and makes the meaning more clear or exact.

    In most cases an adverb is formed by adding ly to an adjective:<1>EX: slow (adjective) = slowly (adverb). He slowly walked to the door.

    In some cases the adverb has the same form as the adjective:<1>EX: hard (adjective) = hard (adverb). She works hard.

    Adverb Rules:

    Adverbs describe Verbs: how, where, and when. <1>EX: <1>HOW = Mary sang beautifully, softly, loudly, aggressively<1>The adverb tells us how Mary sings. <1>WHERE = John looked away, up, down, around<1>The adverb tells us where John is looking. <1>WHEN = Mike is arriving soon, later, now<1>The adverb tells us when Mike is arriving.<1><1>Adverbs describe Adjectives: to what degree. <1>EX: <1>TO WHAT DEGREE = David is extremely clever<1>The adverb tell us the degree to which David is clever. <1>(Common adverbs of degree are: almost, nearly, quite, just, too, enough, hardly, scarcely, and completely.)<1><1>Adverbs describe Adverbs:how much and how often. <1>EX: <1>HOW MUCH = This car goes incredibly fast<1>The adverb tells us how fast the car goes. <1>HOW OFTEN = They go to the theatre often, sometimes, rarely, never, always<1>The adverb tells us how often they go to the theatre. Clause

    A clause is a group of words containing a subject and verb. There are two types of clauses:

    Principal Clause: also called independent or main clause, can stand alone as a complete sentence. <1>EX: The cat was healthy. <1><1>Subordinate Clause: also called dependant clause, functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb. <1>EX: <1>Noun Clause: That he is ill is obvious. <1>Adjective Clause: This is the boy who delivers our paper. <1>Adverb Clause: The cat was healthy because she ate well. Conjunction

    A conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, or clauses.

    There are four types of conjunctions: coordinating, subordinating, correlative, and adverbial.

    Coordinating Conjunctions: join words, phrases, sentences, and clauses of equal rank together and include: and, but, nor, so, or, and yet. <1>EX: The girls arrived early and played football.<1><1>Subordinating Conjunctions: join dependent clauses with independent clauses and include: after, as, as if, until, whenever, where, and wherever. <1>EX: I am lying on this bed until my back feels better.<1><1>Correlative Conjunctions: always used in pairs in a sentence or phrase even though they are separated by other words. These include: both/and, either/or, neither/nor. <1>EX: We should have given them either the food or the water.<1><1>Adverbial Conjunctions: join sentences or clauses of equal importance and include: besides, furthermore, hence, likewise, moreover, therefore, and thus. The adverbial conjunction usually follows a semicolon. <1>EX: Brianna likes to swim; therefore she plans to join the swim team.

    Interjection

    Interjections are words of exclamation used to express strong feelings. These include: oh, ouch, eureka, hey, ugh, wow, and thanks. <1>EX: Wow! What a mess!

    Noun

    A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea. <1>EX: The violin was beautifully constructed.

    Abstract Noun: word that names feelings, qualities and ideas. <1>EX: <1>They fell in love. (feelings) <1>The horse is a beauty. (qualities) <1>She is in good health. (ideas)<1><1>Collective Noun: a singular noun denoting a group of people. <1>EX: humankind<1>class<1>tribe<1><1>Common Noun: general names for people, places, things. All nouns other than proper nouns are common. <1>EX: friend<1>mall<1>backpack<1><1>Compound Nouns: formed from two or more words (not necessarily nouns). The meaning of the words together is different from the meaning of the words on their own. EX: <1>day + dream = daydream <1>hold + up = holdup <1>work + man = workman<1><1>Concrete Noun: persons, places, and things that one can physically touch, see, taste, smell, or hear. <1>EX: <1>bread<1>woman<1><1>Plural Noun: names more than one person, place, or thing. <1>EX:<1>women<1>men<1><1>Predicate Noun: a noun or pronoun in the predicate that renames the subject. <1>EX: Jack is a police officer.<1><1>Proper Noun: names specific people or places. Proper nouns may also refer to times or to dates in the calendar. <1>EX: John<1>Queen Mary<1>London<1>January<1>Christmas<1><1>Singular Noun: names only one person, place, or thing. <1>EX: woman, man Participle

    A participle is a verb form that is used with an auxiliary verb to indicate certain tenses. A verb used as an adjective is also called a participle. <1>EX: <1>Jamie has been playing tennis all day. (Past perfect tense.) <1>Luke is a running man. (The participle running is a verb and an adjective.)

    Phrase

    A phrase is any group of two or more words that together form a thought or express one meaning. A phrase has no verb or subject. There are five types of phrases: prepositional, participial, infinitive, gerund, and verb:

    Prepositional Phrase: group of two or more words that begin with a preposition and end with a noun or pronoun. <1>NOTE: The noun or pronoun at the end of a prepositional phrase is known as the "object of the preposition."<1>EX: We traveled around the world.<1><1>Participial Phrase: groups of two or more words that begin with participles. <1>EX: Longing to go to the party, Mary dressed up.<1><1>Infinitive Phrase: groups of two or more words consisting of an infinitive verb or an infinitive verb plus an adverb. <1>NOTE: Infinitive verbs begin with the word "to". <1>EX: We wanted to run well.<1><1>Gerund Phrase: groups of two or more words that contain a gerund. <1>EX: <1>She did not appreciate my being there. <1>Running quickly and efficiently is a great sport.<1><1>Verb Phrase: groups of two or more verbs that describe an action, such as: have come, had gone, and would have come. <1>EX: She would have come to the party but had other plans. Preposition

    A preposition relates a pronoun or noun to another word in the same sentence. <1>EX: Serena went to the show with Freya.

    HINT: "The worm crawled ________ the apple." Any word used to fill in the blank is a preposition. There are over 40 prepositions: in, around, behind, to, beneath, etc.

    NOTE: The noun or pronoun at the end of a prepositional phrase is the object of the preposition.

    Pronoun

    A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. Pronouns are words that are substituted for naming people, places or things:

    Demonstrative Pronoun: refers to specific people, places, or things, and includes: this, that, these, those. <1>EX: Who is this?<1><1>Indefinite Pronoun: refer to or replace nouns in a general way. Some are used as an adjective followed by a noun. These include: one, any each, none, some, another, anybody, anyone, everybody, everyone, few, either, someone, both, anything, somebody, all, everything, many, neither, nobody, none. <1>EX: <1>Its anyones game. <1>Many are called but few are chosen. <1>My heart belongs to another. <1>Everybodys business is nobodys business.<1><1>Intensive Pronoun: emphasizes another pronoun or noun. <1>EX: <1>We ourselves created a new game. <1>The Governor himself presented the award.<1><1>Interrogative Pronouns: are used to ask questions. <1>EX: who, what, which<1><1>Object Pronoun: are used with a noun or pronoun as a part of the direct object. <1>EX: We saw them in swimming.<1><1>Personal Pronoun: refer to a specific person or animal. These include: I, we, us, me, my, mine, our, ours, you, ye, thou, thee, your, yours, he, she, it, they, him, her, them, his, her, hers, its, their, theirs. <1>EX: He will play in the game.<1><1>Possessive Pronoun: are used to show ownership or possession. <1>EX: mine, yours <1>NOTE: Do not use an apostrophe ( ) in a possessive pronoun. (i.e. yours)<1><1>Reflexive Pronoun: used to refer back to subject pronouns and pronouns. Used for emphasis. <1>EX: myself, yourselves, itself. <1>The boy hurt himself.<1><1>Relative Pronoun: connects a subordinate clause with a main clause. <1>EX: who, whom, which, that, what. <1>He is the one whom I love.<1><1>Subject Pronoun: are used with a noun or pronoun as a part of the subject of a sentence or clause. <1>EX: She and I went to the mall last night. Sentences

    Sentences are groups of words that express a complete thought. There are four categories of sentences: simple, compound, complex, and compound complex; as well as four types: declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory.

    There are three categories of sentences: Simple Sentences: made up of one subject and one predicate.<1>EX: The girls played soccer.Compound Sentences: made up of two or more simple sentences connected by a conjunction.<1>EX: The girls played soccer and the boys played football.Complex Sentences: made up of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses.<1>EX: The second graders left the classroom early because the fire drill began.<1>Compound Complex Sentences: made up of two or more principal clauses and one or more subordinate clauses. <1>EX: Jack loved to ride, and he loved to rope when he had time.

    There are four types of sentences: Declarative Sentences: make statements.<1>EX: Life is good.Interrogative Sentences: ask questions.<1>EX: Is life good?Imperative Sentences: request actions or give commands.<1>EX: Open the window and jump to the tree.Exclamatory Sentences: express strong feelings.<1>EX: I feel great!

    Subject

    A subject is the noun or pronoun that states "who" or "what" a clause or sentence is about. <1>EX: The girl played chess.

    Complete Subject: a noun along with any descriptive word or phrase that goes with it. <1>EX: The pretty girl on the dance floor danced all night.<1><1>Compound Subject: two or more simple subjects connected by a conjunction. <1>EX: My dad and I watched my sister graduate from college. Verb

    A verb is a word expressing action, existence, or occurrence. Verbs describe a state of being or action.

    Action Verbs: describe activity. <1>EX: run, swim, walk<1><1>Auxiliary Verbs: same as helping verbs.<1><1>Helping Verbs: help the main verb describe an action occurring in the past, present, or future. <1>There are twenty three helping verbs: am, are, be been, being, can, could, did, do, does, has, had, have, is, may, might, must, shall, should, was, were, will, would. <1>EX: <1>Jill will have gone tomorrow. <1>You may go.<1><1>Infinitive Verbs: a main verb that is preceded by the word "to". This form does the job of both a verb and a noun and can also be used as an adjective or an adverb. <1>EX: To be or not to be that is the question.<1><1>Irregular Verbs: verbs that do not conjugate by adding d or ed. <1>EX: do, did, done<1><1>Linking Verbs: describe state of being or existence that is not action: is, be, am, are, was, were, been. <1>Ex: <1>Joann is happy. <1>He was sad. <1>They were funny.<1><1>Regular Verbs: can change from the present to the past and past participle by adding "ed" or "d". <1>EX: <1>Now I jump. <1>Yesterday I jumped. <1>I have jumped.<1><1>Transitive Verbs: verbs that have an object. <1>EX: <1>Tiffany played the guitar. (guitar = object)<1><1>Intransitive Verbs: verbs that do not have an object. <1>EX: The Frisbee flew over the house.

    Principal Parts of Verbs <1>Every verb has four main parts called principal parts: <1>The Present Tense: to swim, to run <1>The Past Tense: swam, ran <1>The Present Participle: to be running <1>The Past Participle: have/ had run

    Verb Tenses <1>Present Tense (now): The dog has fleas. <1>Past Tense(before now): The dog had fleas. <1>Future Tense (not yet): The dog will have fleas. <1>Present Perfect Tense (started in the past and continues up into the present): The dog has had fleas all her life. <1>Past Perfect Tense (finished before some other past action): The dog had had fleas for four years until we bought her a flea collar. <1>Future Perfect Tense (action will start and end in the future): I will have gone to school for four years before I graduate.

    Apostrophe '

    An apostrophe is the mark ( ) indicating:

    Contractions: the omission of a letter or letters in a word.

    EX: that's for that is

    isn't for is not

    "0a54">COMMON CONTRACTIONS

    Omission of Figures: the omission of a number.

    EX: The class of '80. (Instead of 1980.)

    Plurals: certain plural forms.

    EX: Dot your is and cross your ts.

    1900's

    Figure 8s

    Possessive Case: of indefinite pronouns, proper nouns, and nouns.

    EX: his uncle's house

    Someones great idea

    Marys dress<1><1><1r>

    Brackets [ ]

    Brackets are either of the signs [ ] used to enclose a word, etc.

    Within Parentheses: Brackets are used to enclose material inserted within information already in parentheses.

    EX: (Washington [D.C.], July, 1976)

    Indicating a Different Author: Brackets are used to enclose words or passages in quotations, in order to indicate the insertion of material written by someone other than the original writer.

    EX: On the outside of the city [according to some] are ancient caves.

    Colon :

    A colon is a mark of punctuation ( : ) used before a long quotation, explanation, example, series, etc. and after the salutation of a formal letter.

    Introduce a Long Quotation: The colon is used to introduce a long quotation.

    EX: In the President's message, Mr. Kennedy said: "Our nation"

    Biblical References: The colon separates chapter and verse numbers in reference to Bible quotations.

    EX: Mark 5:12

    Introduce Lists: Colons are used to introduce lists.

    EX: Included in the survival kit are the following: knife, flashlight, matches, etc.

    Following a Salutation: The colon follows the salutation in a formal letter.

    EX: Dear Dr. Smith:

    Time: Colons are used to separate the hour and minute in time designations.

    EX: 4:30 pm

    Amplify, Explain, Summarize, etc: The colon introduces phrases, words, or clauses that (1) amplify, (2) explain, (3) summarize, or (4) exemplify what preceded.

    EX: (1) He told the people what they wanted to hear: their investments looked as though they would produce a profit.

    (2) Hard determinism is the theory that there are no free acts: even so, doesnt a person feel free most of the time when he makes a choice?

    (3) Fortunately, he had many redeeming virtues: he would do volunteer work, make monetary donations, help his aged mother, and mows his neighbors lawn.

    (4)All of a sudden I knew where I was: Disneyland.

    Comma ,

    A comma is a mark of punctuation ( , ) used to indicate a slight separation of sentence elements.

    Commas have multiple functions and uses:

    Appositives: Commas set off nonrestrictive appositives.

    EX: Bill, the congressman's son, was in my graduating class.

    Compound Sentence: Commas separate the clauses of a compound sentence connected by a coordinating conjunction.

    EX: There are obvious differences between the art works of Bill and Karen, but then it's those differences that bring them together.

    Dates: Commas separate the year from the month in dates.

    EX: December 27, 1942 is his birthday.

    March 1968 is the month of his birthday. (No comma between month and year.)

    Direct Address: Commas set off words used in a direct address.

    EX: Thank you, Karen, for your support.

    Geographical Names: Commas set off the state from the city in geographical names.

    EX: San Francisco, California is referred to as the City by the Bay.

    Introduce a Sentence: Commas set off words used to introduce a sentence.

    EX: Yes, I'll go to the game tonight.

    Large Numbers: Commas separate series of four or more figures into thousands, millions, etc.

    EX: 1,000

    56,200

    $1,000,000.00

    Nonrestrictive Phrase: Commas set off a nonrestrictive phrase or clause.

    EX: The mechanic, with yellow shoes, is the same mechanic who works on my car.

    Omission of Words: Commas are used to indicate the omission of a word or words.

    EX: To err is human, to forgive, divine.

    Quotations and Sayings: Commas set off short quotations and sayings.

    EX: Sharon told him, Come tomorrow for lunch.

    Salutation and Close: Commas follow the salutation and the complimentary close of informal letters and the complimentary close of formal letters.

    EX: Dear Michelle,

    Sincerely, Pete

    Separate "and" &"or": Commas separate "and" & "or" from the final item in a series of three or more.

    EX: Yellow, red, orange, and blue were the obvious colors.

    Separate Adjectives: Commas separate two or more adjectives modifying the same noun if "and" could be used between them without changing the meaning.

    EX: A large, heavy desk

    Separate Questions: Commas separate a phrase that transforms a statement into a question.

    EX: You did say that you took the car, didn't you?

    Separate Subordinate Clauses: Commas set off a subordinate clause or a long phrase that precedes the principal clause.

    EX: After all was said and done, the issue remained unresolved.

    To Clarify a Sentence: Commas set off any sentence elements that might be misread if the comma were not used.

    EX: Some time after, the actual message was sent.

    Transitional Words: Commas set of transitional words and short expressions that require a pause in reading.

    EX: Unfortunately, Dave didn't wear his seatbelt that night.

    Dashes -

    A dash is the mark of punctuation ( - ) used to indicate a break, omission, etc.

    There are six ways to use a dash:

    1. Author of a Quote: A dash sets off the name of an author or a source, as at the end of a quotation.

    EX: The only thing to fear is fear itself. -Winston Churchill

    2. Change in Continuity: A dash is used to indicate a sudden break or abrupt change in continuity.

    EX: And then the crime-if it is a crime-can be solved.

    3. Explanatory Phrase: A dash sets apart a defining or explanatory phrase.

    EX: He suddenly realized what the "A" on his term paper meant-graduation.

    4. Mark Unfinished Sentences: A dash is used to mark an unfinished sentence.

    EX: She walked into the room and-

    5. Parenthetical Material: A dash is used to set off material that is parenthetical in nature.

    EX: Karen-who had an angelic face, short blonde hair, and blue eyes-was actually a monster.

    6. Summarizing Word or Phrase: A dash is used to set off a summarizing phrase or clause.

    EX: Christmas, Easter, Thanksgiving-these are among my favorite holidays.

    Ellipses ...

    Ellipses are a punctuation mark ( ) indicating an omission of words, omission of lines, and pause in speech.

    Omission of Words: Ellipses indicate the omission of words or sentences in quoted material or an unfinished sentence.

    EX: They too have been deaf to the voice of justice...

    Omission of Lines: Ellipses can be used to indicate the omission of a line or lines of poetry.

    EX: <1>Come away, O human child!<1><1>For the world's more full of<1>Weeping than you can understand.<1>-William Butler Yeats<1>

    Pause in Speech: Ellipses are used to indicate a pause in speech.

    EX: "Yes...I mean...what he stammered.

    Exclamation Points !

    An excalimation point is a mark ( ! ) used in punctuating to indicate an expression of intense emotion, a command, or an empathic sentence or phrase.

    EX: Great!

    You can't be serious!

    Get out of here!

    Hyphens -

    A hyphen is a mark ( - ) used between the parts of a compound word or the syllables of a divided word, as at the end of a line.

    Separate Prefix: Hyphens are used to separate the prefix and root in some combinations.

    EX: co-worker

    Substitution of "to": A hyphen can substitute the word "to" between two words or figures.

    EX: read pages 6-20

    San Francisco-New York flight

    Continuation of Words: At the end of a line, the hyphen indicates that part of a word of more than one syllable has been carried over to the following line.

    EX: On his way to the con-<1> struction site, John stopped at the<1> donut shop.

    Join Compound Words: Hyphens are used to join elements of some compound words.

    EX: great-grandmother, cure-all

    Joining Compound Modifiers: Hyphens are used to join elements of compound modifiers preceding a noun.

    EX: fifteen high-school students, built-in cabinets, a well-dressed student

    Indicating a Single Base: Hyphens indicate that two or more compounds share a single base.

    EX: nine- and ten-year olds, five- and six-volume sets

    "09f3">DIVIDING WORDS RULES

    Parenthesis ()

    Parenthesis are a punctuation mark used to set off a word, clause, etc. added as an explanation or comment within a sentence.

    Words not Essential: Parentheses are used to enclose material that is not essential to the sentence and would not alter the meaning if not included.

    EX: In one hour's time (some say more), it's possible to walk eight miles.

    Enclose Identifiers: Parentheses can be used to enclose numbers or letters to indicate subdivisions of a series.

    EX: An airplane can rotate on the following axis': (a) longitudinal (b) vertical and (c) horizontal.

    Periods .

    A period is the mark of punctuation ( . ) used at the end of a sentence.

    To End a Sentence: A period is used to indicate the end of a complete declarative of a mild imperative sentence.

    EX: I am happy.

    Indicate Abbreviations: A period is used following the abbreviation of a word or words.

    EX: Feb. Mr. Inc.

    Question Marks ?

    A question mark is a mark of punctuation ( ? ) put after a sentence or word to indicate a direct question, or to express doubt, uncertainty, etc.

    To End a Question: Question marks are used to indicate the end of a direct question.

    EX: How old are you?

    Indicate Uncertainty: A question mark can be used to indicate uncertainty.

    EX: He was on duty from 1:30 am (?) to 12:00 pm.

    Single Quotation Marks '

    Single quotation marks are a pair of punctuation marks () used to enclose quoted material within a quotation. <1>EX: "To me, the reason for being alive is 'living'," he said.

    Rules for Punctuation with Quotations

    Commas and periods should be put inside closing quotation marks.Colons and semicolons should be put outside the closing quotation marks.All other punctuation (e.g. question marks and exclamation points) should be put inside the closing quotation marks only when they are part of the matter being quoted. Double Quotation Marks "

    Double quotation marks are a pair of punctuation marks ("") used to enclose a direct quotation. <1>EX: "What was it like in Italy?" she asked.

    Foreign Words or Phrases: Double quotation marks set off the translation of a foreign word or phrase. <1>EX: The word "shalom" means peace.

    Clarify Meaning: Double quotation marks enclose words or phrases to clarify their meaning or use, or to indicate that they are being used in a special way. <1>EX: By "silence" I mean don't talk!

    Titles of Books, etc.: Double quotation marks are used to set off titles of a series of books, essays, songs and short musical pieces, television programs, etc. <1>EX: Chapter 10, "Circulatory System" <1>"The Bob Hope Special" <1>"The Dick Powell Western Series"

    Rules for Punctuation with Quotations

    Commas and periods should be put inside closing quotation marks.Colons and semicolons should be put outside the closing quotation marks.All other punctuation (e.g. question marks and exclamation points) should be put inside the closing quotation marks only when they are part of the matter being quoted. Semicolons ;

    A semicolon is mark of punctuation ( ; ) indicating a degree of separation greater than that marked by the comma.

    1. No Coordinating Conjunction: semicolons separate the clauses of a compound sentence having no coordinating conjunction.

    EX: Many motorists were stranded by the accident; smoke and flames were everywhere.

    2. With a Conjunctive Adverb: semicolons separate clauses of a compound sentence joined by a conjunctive adverb.

    EX: She demanded a full refund; otherwise she would contact the Better Business Bureau.

    3. Separate a Compound Sentence: semicolons are used to separate the clauses of a compound sentence where the clauses contain internal punctuation, even when the clause is joined by a conjunction.

    EX: Rifles in hand, we walked to the edge of the jungle, cleared an area, and dug our foxholes; and the rest of the platoon moved in by helicopter.

    4. Separate Elements: semicolons separate elements of a series in which items already contain commas.

    EX: Among the guests were Bob Johnson; his son, Frank; Tony Smith, formerly of MIT; and three others I didn't know.

    Virgules /

    A vigule is a diagonal line ( / ) used in dates or fractions, and also standing for or, per, etc.

    Fractions: separate the numerator from the denominator in a fraction.

    EX: 3/4

    To Indicate "or": means "or" between the words "and" & "or".

    EX: Jim and/or Karen will attend the meeting.

    To Indicate "per": represents the word "per".

    EX: 25 miles/hour

    Separate Lines in Text: A virgule separates two or more lines of poetry quoted in text.

    EX: The actress had a memory lapse when she came to the lines, "Why? All delights are vain, but that most vain/which, with pain purchas'd, doth inherit pain, and had to improvise.

    Changing Word Endings

    RULE 1: For words ending in "l," keep the "l" before adding a suffix beginning with "l."<1>Accidental to Accidentally

    RULE 2: When joining suffixes and prefixes ending in "ll" (e.g. "all" & "full") to any word, drop one "l" when joining them to the word. <1>Already and Thankful

    RULE 3: For words ending in a consonant preceded by more than one vowel, do not double the consonant before adding a suffix that begins with a vowel. <1>Boil to Boiling

    RULE 4: For words ending in "y" preceded by a vowel, keep the "y" before adding the suffix. <1>Buy to Buyer

    RULE 5: Do not double the final consonant of words ending in more than one consonant. <1>Confirm to Confirming

    RULE 6: When adding "ing" to words ending in "ie," change the "ie" to "y" before adding the "ing". <1>Die to Dying

    RULE 7: For single syllable adjectives ending in "y," keep the "y" when adding a suffix. <1>Dry to Drying

    RULE 8: For words ending in a double consonant, keep both consonants when adding a suffix. <1>Enroll to Enrolling

    RULE 9: When a word ends in a silent "e," drop the final "e" when adding a suffix that begins with a vowel. <1>Judge to Judging

    RULE 10: When a word ends in a silent "e," keep the final "e" when adding a suffix that begins with a consonant. <1>Love to Lovely

    RULE 11: For words ending in the letter "n," keep the final "n" when adding the suffix "ness". <1>Mean to Meanness

    RULE 12: For words ending in "y" preceded by a consonant, change the "y" to "i" before adding the suffix. <1>NOTE: This is correct only if the suffix does not begin with the letter "i." <1>Occupy to Occupied

    RULE 13: For words made up of more than one syllable with the accent on the last syllable and ending with a single consonant preceded by a vowel, double the final consonant if the suffix begins with a vowel. <1>Occur to Occurred

    RULE 14: When adding endings that begin with "e," "i," or "y" to words ending in "c", add the letter "k" before adding the ending. <1>Panic to Panicky

    RULE 15: Double the consonant before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel, to words of one syllable and words accented on the last syllable if they end in a single consonant preceded by a vowel. <1>Sad to Sadden

    RULE 16: Before adding a suffix beginning with any vowel (except "e") to words ending in "oe," keep the final "e" before adding the suffix. <1>Toe to Toeing

    RULE 17: Do not double the final consonant on words not accented on the last syllable or when the accent is placed forward. <1>Travel to Traveling

    Forming Plurals

    RULE 1: To form the plural of nouns ending in "i," add the letter "s". <1>Alibi to Alibis

    RULE 2: For nouns ending in "y" preceded by a consonant, change the "y" to "ies" to form the plural. <1>Army to Armies

    RULE 3: For nouns ending in a sound that cannot be united in pronunciation with "s" (e.g. "ch", "sh", "j", "s", "x" or "z"), the plural is formed by adding "es". <1>Bush to Bushes

    RULE 4: To form the plural of nouns ending in "ff," "fe," or "f" add the letter "s". <1>Handkerchief to Handkerchiefs

    RULE 5: For nouns ending in "y" preceded by a vowel, add an "s" to form the plural. <1>Key to Keys

    RULE 6: For some nouns ending in "o" preceded by a vowel, the plural is formed by adding "s". <1>Radio to Radios

    RULE 7: For some nouns ending in "o" preceded by a consonant, the plural is formed by adding "es". <1>Tomato to Tomatoes

    Misc. Spelling Rules

    RULE 1: When a word ends in the sound "cede" it is most always spelled "cede" with only four major exceptions: <1>Precede>

    The four exceptions include: <1>succeed, proceed, exceed, supersede.

    RULE 2: Use "i" before "e" except after "c," or when sounding like "a" as in "neighbor" and "weigh" (then use "e" before "i"). <1>Friend <1>Receipt <1>Neighbor

    Choosing Your Subject

  • Subject should be interesting and of value to you and the reader.
  • Do not try to cover too broad a field. If your topic is too broad, choose an important aspect of it to focus on. Information About Your Topic Survey as many sources of information as you can.Create a "working bibliography" by preparing a list of all books, magazine articles, pamphlets, encyclopedia entries, and any other information source you find. <1>NOTE: Check these sources first:The library computer to locate books, journals, and magazine articles. (see also the "09f1">Dewey Decimal System)An encyclopedia for general information concerning your topic. Keep an accurate list of the possible sources you may later use in your paper. However, do not study the available information at this point. Reading and Taking Notes As you begin to study the available information, take notes on 3X5 inch index cards to make sorting and organizing your data more efficient.Use two sets of cards: one for taking notes and the other for your bibliography.For each book, journal, magazine article, etc. make a bibliography card. <1>This card should contain four basic elements: Name of the author (Put this in the upper left corner of your card.)Source number - This is a number you assign to each individual card. The source number you assign to a specific bibliography card will be the same number you assign to its corresponding "note card." (Put the source number in the upper right corner of your cards.)Title - List the title of the book, journal, magazine article, etc. on the bibliography card. (Magazine articles should also list the date and year of the issue.)Additional information - For books, indicate the name of the publisher, place of publication, and year of publication. As you read your source material and construct your bibliography cards, start taking notes on the note cards.<1>Note cards should be brief and contain the following information: Slug - A "slug" is a subtopic in the form of a label or general heading. Add the slug to the top of your note card. This will help in the organization of your paper later on.Source number - The source number on your note card should reflect the source number on your bibliography card indicating exactly where the note was taken from. *Remember, one bibliography card source number may have one or more note cards with the same corresponding source number.Page number - Indicate the exact page number where you found the information.Note body - In the body of the note, write down a few specific highlights, a summary or a direct quote. Organizing Your Notes Review your note cards and sort them according to "slugs" (subtopics). These will form the subheadings of your outline.Re-read your note cards and sort the material into logical divisions of your topic. Now you are ready to construct your outline. Constructing an Outline

    In constructing your outline, list the major divisions as "main heading." Now examine the assortment of "slugs" under that main heading and list these as "subheadings" and "divisions" of subheadings. <1>EX: <1>I. Main Heading SubheadingDivision of ADivision of 1Another division of 1 Second SubheadingDivision of BAnother division of BDivision of 2 <1>II. Second Main Heading

    Writing the First Draft

    Without concern at this point for grammar, syntax, punctuation, or spelling, focus on writing your ideas down clearly and logically. Double space your lines and use the margin to one side as space for corrections and insertions.

    Review Your Draft Check the content of your paper:

  • Read it carefully.
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  • Make sure if you have quoted or paraphrased an author, you give credit in a footnote. Prepare the Final Copy Rewrite or retype your paper from your corrected draft.Prepare a title page for your paper. This should include the title of your paper, your name and the date submitted. It may also include your school name, your course, and the name of your teacher.Prepare a preface. This should be included if you wish to make a statement about your topic or why you decided to write it. The preface is also the appropriate place to acknowledge who assisted you in some way in your research or preparation.Prepare a table of contents for easy reference for your reader.Prepare a bibliography listing alphabetically (by the authors last name) all sources you used whether or not you quoted them directly. Include all the publication data on each source. Your bibliography cards should contain this information and will make preparing your bibliography go much faster.If your paper includes any charts, graphs, diagrams, etc. include these in an Appendix. Final Assembly

    The final assembly of your term paper should be in this order for submitting:<1>Title pagePrefaceTable of ContentsPaperBibliographyAppendix

    h313"332"#32"#313"312"313"32"#312"32"#13"313"31312"#13"#3232"3"#13"#3"13"#1"12"31"13"3"12"#1"3"13"#312"1"3"32"#2""#2"2" "#1"3" "13"#2" "12"2" "1"2""#13"2"#32"2"313"2"#12"2"33" "2"#12""#2"32" "3"#12" "2"3" "#"#12" "3"#2"#2"#"2"#"2"#"2"1"3"1"#"#3"12"3"#32"333"#3"333"32"#31"32"#1"32"#33"#2"#3"#3"#"#312"#2"3"312"32"3"312"3"#"31"#3"31"#3"3"#2"#1"2"1"3"3"#2"#31"3""1"#3" "3"#2" "#12" "3" "#132" "#" "#2" "#""32"#3" "#"1312" "#"332" "3"#13"2"3"2"#1312"3"30132"3"33"#13"2"#13"32"32"#3032"#12"3032"#313"12"#0332"33"332" "#12"03" "12"#02" "12"332" "13"#02" "32"#3" "#13"#02"#32"02"33"02"3233"#313"#333303130303303103133131h31"31313132"132313"33"#332"3332#3"#3"33"1312"#3132"#12"#13"#2332"313"#32"#2"#3"32"312"#3"313"313"32#12"#32"12#"#2"#32"##2"#2"32"#12"#3#312"132"1332"13#"133"12#3"332" "1313"31""1332" "1" "31" "#3" "13" "#132" "#32" "#" "13"#32" "1"#12"33" "1"#12"#133"1"12"!#32"#"1212"1"#1"#3"12"1"332"#32"13"31"#3"#"32#13"#2"#12"#32"3"12"332"#2"13"131"#"#3"#2"11321"#2"#32"#2"#2#233"#"#"323"#32"12"#2"131"#2"#13"32"#3"132"12"3"32"3"33"12"3"3"#32"33"1"3"1"#313""1"12"#32" "#31212"#2"#32" "1212#332"#13" "#31312#312"#3"#2" "###132"33#13""##21#32"#132"#112#12"12"#12"3"32"1313"#"#12"#233"#3"#3"312#"#3#3"#3"13#332#3"#1"1333"#"1"1312#2""12"1"13#3" "12"1313""#2"32" "#2"1312" "12"11#131""12"13132"3233"12"1#2"#2"12"1#2"#"#"#33#3""#"#3"#"33""#"#"3#12""#"12"1#3""#"12"132""3"13"112""#12"#1"12"32"#1"312"#3"12"12"#123"#12"#323312"#12"1313"33"#"3"#312"#"#"#2###1213113333031130130313303131033330130333031033031303130313033Countries of Central America

    "0a56">Bahamas

    "0a57">Barbados

    "0a58">Belize

    "0a59">Cost Rica

    "0a5a">Cuba

    "0a5b">Dominica

    "0a5c">Dominican Republic

    "0a5d">El Salvador

    "0a5e">Grenada

    "0a5f">Grenadines

    "0a60">Guatemala

    "0a61">Haiti

    "0a62">Honduras

    "0a63">Jamaica

    "0a64">Nevis and Saint Kitts

    "0a65">Nicaragua

    "0a66">Panama

    "0a67">Saint Lucia

    "0a68">Trinidad

    Everest

    Range: Himalayas

    Location: Nepal/ Tibet

    Height (feet): 29,028

    Height (meters): 8,848

    K2 (Godwin Austen)

    Range: Karakoram

    Location: Pakistan/ China

    Height (feet): 28,250

    Height (meters): 8,611

    Kanchenjunga

    Range: Himalayas

    Location: India/ Nepal

    Height (feet): 28,169

    Height (meters): 8,586

    Lhotse I

    Range: Himalayas

    Location: Nepal/ Tibet

    Height (feet): 27,940

    Height (meters): 8,516

    Makalu I

    Range: Himalayas

    Location: Nepal/ Tibet

    Height (feet): 27,776

    Height (meters): 8,463

    Cho Oyu

    Range: Himalayas

    Location: Nepal/ Tibet

    Height (feet): 26,906

    Height (meters): 8,201

    Dhaulagiri

    Range: Himalayas

    Location: Nepal

    Height (feet): 26,795

    Height (meters): 8,167

    Manaslu

    Range: Himalayas

    Location: Nepal

    Height (feet): 26,781

    Height (meters): 8,163

    Nanga Parbat

    Range: Himalayas

    Location: Pakistan

    Height (feet): 26,660

    Height (meters): 8,125

    Annapurna I

    Range: Himalayas

    Location: Nepal

    Height (feet): 26,545

    Height (meters): 8,091

    Gasherbrum I

    Range: Karakoram

    Location: Pakistan/ China

    Height (feet): 26,470

    Height (meters): 8,068

    Broad Peak

    Range: Karakoram

    Location: Pakistan/ China

    Height (feet): 26,400

    Height (meters): 8,047

    Gosainthan (Shishma Pangma)

    Range: Himalayas

    Location: Tibet

    Height (feet): 26,397

    Height (meters): 8,046

    Gasherbrum II

    Range: Karakoram

    Location: Pakistan/ China

    Height (feet): 26,360

    Height (meters): 8,035

    Annapurna II

    Range: Himalayas

    Location: Nepal

    Height (feet): 26,041

    Height (meters): 7,937

    Gyachung Kang

    Range: Himalayas

    Location: Nepal

    Height (feet): 25,910

    Height (meters): 7,897

    Disteghil Sar

    Range: Karakoram

    Location: Pakistan

    Height (feet): 25,858

    Height (meters): 7,882

    Himalchuli

    Range: Himalayas

    Location: Nepal

    Height (feet): 25,801

    Height (meters): 7,864

    Nuptse

    Range: Himalayas

    Location: Nepal

    Height (feet): 25,726

    Height (meters): 7,841

    Nanda Devi

    Range: Himalayas

    Location: India

    Height (feet): 25,663

    Height (meters): 7,824

    World's Highest Active Volcanoes <2> 4>

    Volcano

    Locality

    Height: feet

    Antofalla

    Argentina

    21,162

    Guallatiri

    Chile

    19,882

    Cotopaxi

    Ecuador

    19,347

    Kluchev- skaya

    USSR

    15,913

    Mt. Wrangell

    Alaska

    14,000

    Mauna Loa

    Hawaii

    13,680

    Cameroon

    Cameroon

    13,350

    Erebus

    Antarc- tica

    12,450

    Nyira- gongo

    Zaire

    11,385

    Iliamna

    Aleutian Range, USA

    11,000

    Etna

    Sicily

    10,853

    Chillan

    Chile

    10,500

    Nyamu- ragira

    Zaire

    10,150

    Mt. St. Helens

    Cascade Range, USA

    9,677

    Tambora

    Indonesia

    9,351

    Villarrica

    Chile

    9,325

    Ruapehu

    New Zealand

    9,175

    Paricutin

    Mexico

    9,100

    Asama

    Japan

    8,340

    Ngauruhoe

    New Zealand

    7,515

    Hecla

    Iceland

    4,747

    Vesuvius

    Italy

    4,198

    Kilauea

    Hawaii

    4,077

    Stromboli

    Lipari Island, Italy

    3,038

    World's Highest Dormant Volcanoes <2> 4>

    Volcano

    Locality

    Height: feet

    Llullaillaco

    Chile

    22,057

    Cayambe

    Ecuador

    18,982

    Demavend

    Iran

    18,384

    Popocate- petl

    Mexico

    17,887

    Pico de Teide

    Tenerife

    12,198

    Semerou

    Java

    12,060

    Haleakala

    Hawaii

    10,022

    The Peak

    Tristan da Cunha

    6,760

    Tongariro

    New Zealand

    6,458

    Pele

    Martinique

    4,800

    Soufrire

    St. Vincent

    4,200

    World's Highest Extinct Volcanoes <2> 4>

    Volcano

    Location

    Height: feet

    Aconcagua

    Andes

    22,834

    Chimborazo

    Ecuador

    20,561

    Kilimanjaro

    Tanzania

    19,340

    Antisana

    Ecuador

    18,713

    Citlaltepetl

    Mexico

    18,700

    Elbruz

    Caucasus

    18,481

    Angel

    Location: Venezuela

    River: Tributary of Caroni

    Height (feet): 3,821

    Height (meters): 1,000

    Tugela

    Location: Natal, South Africa

    River: Tugela

    Height (feet): 3,000

    Height (meters): 914

    Cuquenn

    Location: Venezuela

    River: Cuquenn

    Height (feet): 2,000

    Height (meters): 610

    Sutherland

    Location: South Island, New Zealand

    River: Arthur

    Height (feet): 1,904

    Height (meters): 580

    Takkakaw

    Location: British Columbia

    River: Tributary of Yoho

    Height (feet): 1,650

    Height (meters): 503

    Ribbon (Yosemite)

    Location: California

    River: Creek flowing onto Yosemite

    Height (feet): 1,612

    Height (meters): 491

    Upper Yosemite

    Location: California

    River: Yosemite Creek, tributary of Merced

    Height (feet): 1,430

    Height (meters): 436

    Gavarnie

    Location: Southwest France

    River: Gave de Pau

    Height (feet): 1,384

    Height (meters): 422

    Vettisfoss

    Location: Norway

    River: Mrkedola

    Height (feet): 1,200

    Height (meters): 366

    Widows' Tears (Yosemite)

    Location: California

    River: Tributary of Merced

    Height (feet): 1,170

    Height (meters): 357

    Staubbach

    Location: Switzerland

    River: Staubbach (Lauterbrunnen Valley)

    Height (feet): 984

    Height (meters): 300

    Middle Cascade (Yosemite)

    Location: California

    River: Yosemite Creek, tributary of Merced

    Height (feet): 909

    Height (meters): 277

    King Edward VIII

    Location: Guyana

    River: Courantyne

    Height (feet): 850

    Height (meters): 259

    Gersoppa

    Location: India

    River: Sharavati

    Height (feet): 829

    Height (meters): 253

    Kaieteur

    Location: Guyana

    River: Potaro

    Height (feet): 822

    Height (meters): 251

    Skykje

    Location: Norway

    River: In Skykjedal Valley (Inner Hardinger Fjord)

    Height (feet): 820

    Height (meters): 250

    Kalambo

    Location: Tanzania-Zambia

    River: Kalambo

    Height (feet): 720

    Height (meters): 219

    Fairy (Mt. Rainier Park)

    Location: Washington

    River: Stevens Creek

    Height (feet): 700

    Height (meters): 213

    Trummelbach

    Location: Switzerland

    River: Trummelbach (Lauterbrunnen Valley)

    Height (feet): 700

    Height (meters): 213

    Aniene (Teverone)

    Location: Italy

    River: Tiber

    Height (feet): 680

    Height (meters): 207

    Cascata delle Marmore

    Location: Italy

    River: Velino, tributary of Nera

    Height (feet): 650

    Height (meters): 198

    Maradalsfos

    Location: Norway

    River: Stream flowing into Ejkisdalsvand (lake)

    Height (feet): 643

    Height (meters): 196

    Feather

    Location: California

    River: Fall River

    Height (feet): 640

    Height (meters): 195

    Maletsunyane

    Location: Lesotho

    River: Maletsunyane

    Height (feet): 630

    Height (meters): 192

    Bridalveil (Yosemite)

    Location: California

    River: Yosemite Creek

    Height (feet): 620

    Height (meters): 189

    Multnomah

    Location: Oregon

    River: Multnomah Creek, tributary of Columbia

    Height (feet): 620

    Height (meters): 189

    Voringsfos

    Location: Norway

    River: Bjoreia

    Height (feet): 597

    Height (meters): 182

    Nevada (Yosemite)

    Location: California

    River: Merced

    Height (feet): 594

    Height (meters): 181

    Skjeggedal

    Location: Norway

    River: Tysso

    Height (feet): 525

    Height (meters): 160

    Marina

    Location: Guyana

    River: Tributary of Potaro

    Height (feet): 500

    Height (meters): 152

    Tequendama

    Location: Colombia

    River: Funza, tributary of Magdalena

    Height (feet): 425

    Height (meters): 130

    King Georges

    Location: Cape of Good Hope, South Africa

    River: Orange

    Height (feet): 400

    Height (meters): 122

    Illilouette (Yosemite)

    Location: California

    River: Illilouette Creek, tributary of Merced

    Height (feet): 370

    Height (meters): 113

    Victoria

    Location: Zimbabwe-Zambia boundary

    River: Zambezi

    Height (feet): 355

    Height (meters): 108

    Handl

    Location: Sweden

    River: Handl Creek

    Height (feet): 345

    Height (meters): 105

    Lower Yosemite

    Location: California

    River: Yosemite

    Height (feet): 320

    Height (meters): 98

    Comet (Mt. Rainier Park)

    Location: Washington

    River: Van Trump Creek

    Height (feet): 320

    Height (meters): 98

    Vernal (Yosemite)

    Location: California

    River: Merced

    Height (feet): 317

    Height (meters): 97

    Virginia

    Location: Northwest Territories, Canada

    River: South Nahanni, tributary of Mackenzie

    Height (feet): 315

    Height (meters): 96

    Lower Yellowstone

    Location: Wyoming

    River: Yellowstone

    Height (feet): 310

    Height (meters): 94

    Greenland

    Location: Northern Atlantic / Arctic Sea

    Country: Greenland

    Square Miles: 839,768

    Square Kilometers: 2,175,000

    New Guinea

    Location: Southwest Pacific

    Country: Iran, Java, Indonesian-west part/ Papua New Guinea- east part

    Square Miles: 316,615

    Square Kilometers: 820,033

    Borneo

    Location: West mid-Pacific

    Country: Indonesian-south part/ Brunei and Malaysia-north part

    Square Miles: 286,914

    Square Kilometers: 743,107

    Madagascar

    Location: Indian Ocean

    Country: Malagasy Republic

    Square Miles: 226,657

    Square Kilometers: 587,042

    Baffin

    Location: North Atlantic

    Country: Canada

    Square Miles: 183,810

    Square Kilometers: 476,068

    Sumatra

    Location: Northeast Indian Ocean

    Country: Indonesia

    Square Miles: 182,859

    Square Kilometers: 473,605

    Honshu

    Location: Sea of Japan-Pacific

    Country: Japan

    Square Miles: 88,925

    Square Kilometers: 230,316

    Great Britain

    Location: Off coast of NW Europe

    Country: England, Scotland, Wales

    Square Miles: 88,758

    Square Kilometers: 229,883

    Ellesmere

    Location: Arctic Ocean

    Country: Canada

    Square Miles: 82,119

    Square Kilometers: 212,688

    Victoria

    Location: Arctic Ocean

    Country: Canadian

    Square Miles: 81,930

    Square Kilometers: 212,199

    Sulawesi (Celebes)

    Location: West mid-Pacific

    Country: Indonesia

    Square Miles: 72,986

    Square Kilometers: 189,034

    South Island

    Location: South Pacific

    Country: New Zealand

    Square Miles: 58,093

    Square Kilometers: 150,461

    Java

    Location: Indian Ocean

    Country: Indonesia

    Square Miles: 48,990

    Square Kilometers: 126,884

    North Island

    Location: South Pacific

    Country: New Zealand

    Square Miles: 44,281

    Square Kilometers: 114,688

    Cuba

    Location: Caribbean Sea

    Country: Cuba

    Square Miles: 44,218

    Square Kilometers: 114,525

    Newfoundland

    Location: North Atlantic

    Country: Canada

    Square Miles: 42,734

    Square Kilometers: 110,681

    Luzon

    Location: West mid-Pacific

    Country: Philippines

    Square Miles: 40,420

    Square Kilometers: 104,688

    Iceland

    Location: North Atlantic

    Country: Iceland

    Square Miles: 39,768

    Square Kilometers: 102,999

    Mindanao

    Location: West mid-Pacific

    Country: Philippines

    Square Miles: 36,537

    Square Kilometers: 94,631

    Ireland

    Location: West of Great Britain

    Country: Ireland-south part/ United Kingdom-north part

    Square Miles: 32,597

    Square Kilometers: 84,426

    Hokkaido

    Location: Sea of Japan-Pacific

    Country: Japan

    Square Miles: 30,372

    Square Kilometers: 78,663

    Hispaniola

    Location: Caribbean Sea

    Country: Dominican Republic-east part/ Haiti-west part

    Square Miles: 29,355

    Square Kilometers: 76,029

    Tasmania

    Location: South of Australia

    Country: Australian

    Square Miles: 26,215

    Square Kilometers: 67,897

    Sri Lanka (Ceylon)

    Location: Indian Ocean

    Country: Sri Lanka

    Square Miles: 25,332

    Square Kilometers: 65,610

    Sakhalin (Karafuto)

    Location: North of Japan

    Country: Russia

    Square Miles: 24,560

    Square Kilometers: 63,610

    Banks

    Location: Arctic Ocean

    Country: Canada

    Square Miles: 23,230

    Square Kilometers: 60,166

    Devon

    Location: Arctic Ocean

    Country: Canada

    Square Miles: 20,861

    Square Kilometers: 54,030

    Tierra del Fuego

    Location: Southern tip of South America

    Country: Argentina-east part/ Chile-west part

    Square Miles: 18,605

    Square Kilometers: 48,187

    Kyushu

    Location: Sea of Japan-Pacific

    Country: Japan

    Square Miles: 16,223

    Square Kilometers: 42,018

    Melville

    Location: Arctic Ocean

    Country: Canada

    Square Miles: 16,141

    Square Kilometers: 41,805

    Axel Heiberg

    Location: Arctic Ocean

    Country: Canada

    Square Miles: 15,779

    Square Kilometers: 40,868

    Southampton

    Location: Hudson Bay

    Country: Canada

    Square Miles: 15,700

    Square Kilometers: 40,663

    Nile

    Length Miles: 4,145

    Length Kilometers: 6,673

    Source: Tributaries of Lake Victoria, E. Africa

    Outflow: Mediterranean Sea

    Amazon

    Length Miles: 4,000

    Length Kilometers: 6,440

    Source: Andes Mts, Peru

    Outflow: Atlantic Ocean

    Mississippi-Missouri

    Length Miles: 3,740

    Length Kilometers: 6,021

    Source: Confluence of Jefferson, Madison, and Galatin R., Montana

    Outflow: Gulf of Mexico

    Changjiang (Yangtze)

    Length Miles: 3,720

    Length Kilometers: 5,989

    Source: Kunlun Mts., China

    Outflow: China Sea

    Yenisei-Angara

    Length Miles: 3,650

    Length Kilometers: 5,877

    Source: Lake Baikal, Russia

    Outflow: Kara Sea (Arctic Ocean)

    Amur-Argun

    Length Miles: 3,590

    Length Kilometers: 5,780

    Source: Khingan Mts., China

    Outflow: Tatar Strait

    Ob-Irtysh

    Length Miles: 3,360

    Length Kilometers: 5,410

    Source: Altai Mts., China

    Outflow: Gulf of Ob (Arctic Ocean)

    Plata-Parana

    Length Miles: 3,030

    Length Kilometers: 4,878

    Source: Confluence of the Paranaiba and Grande rivers, Brazil

    Outflow: Atlantic Ocean

    Huang He (Yellow)

    Length Miles: 2,903

    Length Kilometers: 4,674

    Source: Kunlun Mts., China

    Outflow: Gulf of Chihli (Yellow Sea)

    Congo (Zaire)

    Length Miles: 2,900

    Length Kilometers: 4,669

    Source: Confluence of the Luapula and Lualaba rivers, Zaire

    Outflow: Atlantic Ocean

    Lena

    Length Miles: 2,730

    Length Kilometers: 4,395

    Source: Baikal Mts. Russia

    Outflow: Laptev Sea (Arctic Ocean)

    MacKenzie

    Length Miles: 2,635

    Length Kilometers: 4,242

    Source: Headwaters of Finlay Rivers, British Columbia, Canada

    Outflow: Beaufort Sea (Arctic Ocean)

    Mekong

    Length Miles: 2,600

    Length Kilometers: 4,186

    Source: T'ang-ku-la Mts., Tibet

    Outflow: South China Sea

    Niger

    Length Miles: 2,600

    Length Kilometers: 4,186

    Source: Guinea

    Outflow: Gulf of Guinea

    Missouri

    Length Miles: 2,533

    Length Kilometers: 4,078

    Source: Confluence of Jefferson, Madison, and Galatin R., Montana

    Outflow: Mississippi River

    Mississippi

    Length Miles: 2,348

    Length Kilometers: 3,780

    Source: Lake Itasca, northwestern Minnesota

    Outflow: Gulf of Mexico

    Murray-Darling

    Length Miles: 2,330

    Length Kilometers: 3,751

    Source: Great Dividing Range, Australia

    Outflow: Indian Ocean

    Volga

    Length Miles: 2,290

    Length Kilometers: 3,687

    Source: Valdai Hills, Russia

    Outflow: Caspian Sea

    Madeira

    Length Miles: 2,013

    Length Kilometers: 3,241

    Source: Confluence of Mamore and Beni rivers, Bolivia, Brazil

    Outflow: Amazon River

    Sao Francisco

    Length Miles: 1,988

    Length Kilometers: 3,201

    Source: Minas Gerais State, Brazil

    Outflow: Atlantic Ocean

    Algeria

    Country:

    Algeria

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    918,497 sq. miles

    Population:

    28,400,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    31

    Monetary Unit:

    Dinar

    Languages:

    Arabic, Berber, French

    Religions:

    Islam

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Algiers

    Natural Resources:

    petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, phosphates, zinc, mercury, uranium

    Major Exports:

    petroleum, natural gas

    Major Imports:

    capital goods, consumer goods, foodstuffs

    Form of Government:

    Republic Angola

    Country:

    Angola

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    481,353 sq. miles

    Population:

    11,500,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    24

    Monetary Unit:

    Kwanza

    Languages:

    Portuguese, Bantu

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Protestant

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Luanda

    Natural Resources:

    diamonds, gold, iron ore, oil

    Major Exports:

    oil, coffee, diamonds, fish, timber

    Major Imports:

    machinery ,electrical equipment, textiles, foodstuffs, military equipment

    Form of Government:

    Republic Benin

    Country:

    Benin

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    43,483 sq. miles

    Population:

    5,400,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    124

    Monetary Unit:

    Franc CFA

    Languages:

    French, Fon, Yoruba

    Religions:

    Christian, Islam

    Time Zone (from E ST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Porto-Novo

    Natural Resources:

    limestone, marble, timber, offshore oil

    Major Exports:

    crude oil, cotton, palm products, cocoa

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, tobacco, petroleum products, capital goods

    Form of Government:

    Republic Botswana

    Country:

    Botswana

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    231,800 sq. miles

    Population:

    1,448,454

    Population Density per square mile:

    6.2

    Monetary Unit:

    Pula

    Languages:

    English, Setswana

    Religions:

    Indigenous beliefs

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +7

    Capital City:

    Gaborone

    Natural Resources:

    diamonds, copper, nickel, salt, soda ash, potash, coal, natural gas

    Major Exports:

    diamonds, copper, nickel, meat

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, vehicles, textiles, petroleum products

    Form of Government:

    Parliamentary Republic Burkina Faso

    Country:

    Burkina Faso

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    105,870 sq. miles

    Population:

    11,266,393

    Population Density per square mile:

    107

    Monetary Unit:

    CFA Franc

    Languages:

    French, More, Dioula, Fulani

    Religions:

    Muslim, Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +5

    Capital City:

    Ouagadougou

    Natural Resources:

    limestone, manganese, marble, gold, uranium., copper, bauxite

    Major Exports:

    oilseeds, cotton, live animals, gold

    Major Imports:

    grain, dairy products, petroleum, machinery

    Form of Government:

    Republic Burundi

    Country:

    Burundi

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    10,747 sq. miles

    Population:

    5,537,387

    Population Density per square mile:

    515

    Monetary Unit:

    Franc

    Languages:

    French, Kirundi, Swahili

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Protestant

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +7

    Capital City:

    Bujumbura

    Natural Resources:

    nickel, uranium, peat, cobalt, copper, platinum

    Major Exports:

    coffee, tea, cotton, hides

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, petroleum products, capital and consumer goods

    Form of Government:

    In transition Cameroon

    Country:

    Cameroon

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    183,569 sq. miles

    Population:

    15,029,433

    Population Density per square mile:

    82

    Monetary Unit:

    CFA Franc

    Languages:

    French, English, Foulbe, Bamileke, Donala, Ewondo, Mungaka, Bassa

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Animist, Muslim. Protestant

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Yaounde

    Natural Resources:

    timber, bauxite, hydroelectric power potential

    Major Exports:

    cocoa, coffee, timber, petroleum, aluminum products

    Major Imports:

    machines, consumer goods, transport equipment

    Form Of Government:

    Republic Cape Verde

    Country:

    Cape Verde

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    1,557 sq. miles

    Population:

    400,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    257

    Monetary Unit:

    Escudo

    Languages:

    Portuguese, Criuolo

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Praia

    Natural Resources:

    salt, limestone, fish, basalt rock, pozzolana, kaolin

    Major Exports:

    fish, bananas, clothing

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, consumer goods, industrial products

    Form of Government:

    Republic Central African Republic

    Country:

    Central African Republic

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    241,313 sq. miles

    Population:

    3,200,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    13

    Monetary Unit:

    CFA Franc

    Languages:

    French, Sango

    Religions:

    Protestant, Roman Catholic, Islam

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Bangui

    Natural Resources:

    diamonds, uranium, timber

    Major Exports:

    diamonds, cotton, timber, coffee, tobacco

    Major Imports:

    machinery, petroleum products, textiles, vehicles, foodstuffs, consumer goods

    Form of Government:

    Republic Chad

    Country:

    Chad

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    495,755 sq. miles

    Population:

    6,400,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    13

    Monetary Unit:

    CFA Franc

    Languages:

    French, Arabic, Tribal Languages

    Religions:

    Islam, Christian

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    N'Djamena

    Natural Resources:

    petroleum, uranium, kaolin

    Major Exports:

    cotton, livestock, fish, textiles

    Major Imports:

    Foodstuffs, petroleum products. machinery, transportation equipment

    Form of Government:

    Republic Comoros

    Country:

    Comoros

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    838 sq. miles

    Population:

    500,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    597

    Monetary Unit:

    CFA Franc

    Languages:

    Arabic, French, Comoran

    Religions:

    Islam, Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +8

    Capital City:

    Moroni

    Natural Resources:

    negligible

    Major Exports:

    perfume essences, vanilla, copra

    Major Imports:

    petroleum products, consumer goods, cement, foodstuffs

    Form of Government:

    In transition Republic of Congo

    Country:

    Congo (Republic of)

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    132,046 sq. miles

    Population:

    2,658,123

    Population Density per square mile:

    20

    Monetary Unit:

    CFA Franc

    Languages:

    French, Kongo, Teke, Lingala

    Religions:

    Christian, Animist, Muslim

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Brazzaville

    Natural Resources:

    wood, potash, petroleum, natural gas

    Major Exports:

    oil, lumber, coffee, cocoa, sugar, diamonds

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, consumer goods, capital equipment

    Form of Government:

    Republic Congo

    Country:

    Congo (formerly Zaire)

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    905,365 sq. miles

    Population:

    44,100,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    49

    Monetary Unit:

    Zaire

    Languages:

    French, Kongo, Others

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Protestant, Islam

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Kinshasa

    Natural Resources:

    copper, cobalt, zinc, diamonds (industrial type), manganese, gold, silver, coal

    Major Exports:

    copper, cobalt, diamonds, coffee

    Major Imports:

    consumer goods, foodstuffs, fuels, machinery

    Form of Government:

    In transition Cote d'Ivoire

    Country:

    Cote d' Ivoire (Ivory Coast)

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    124,503 sq. miles

    Population:

    14,300,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    115

    Monetary Unit:

    CFA Franc

    Languages:

    French, Dioula, Others

    Religions:

    Christian, Islam, folk beliefs

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +5

    Capital City:

    Yamoussoukro

    Natural Resources:

    diamonds, iron ore, crude oil, manganese, cobalt, bauxite, copper

    Major Exports:

    cocoa (world's largest exporter)

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, capital and consumer goods, fuel

    Form of Government:

    Republic Djibouti

    Country:

    Djibouti

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    8,950 sq. miles

    Population:

    600,000Population Density per square mile:

    67

    Monetary Unit:

    Franc

    Languages:

    French, Arabic, Afar, Somali, Issa

    Religions:

    Islam (Sunni), Christian

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +8

    Capital City:

    Djibouti

    Natural Resources:

    salt, limestone, gypsum, diatoms, geothermal energy

    Major Exports:

    hides, skins, livestock

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, machinery, consumer goods

    Form of Government:

    Republic Egypt

    Country:

    Egypt

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    386,650 sq. miles

    Population:

    61,900,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    160

    Monetary Unit:

    Pound

    Languages:

    Arabic, English, French

    Religions:

    Islam, Christian

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +7

    Capital City:

    Cairo

    Natural Resources:

    crude oil, natural gas, iron ore, manganese, talc, gypsum, zinc, asbestos, lead

    Major Exports:

    cotton, petroleum, yarn, textiles, chemicals

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, machinery, capital goods, fertilizers, consumer goods

    Form of Government:

    Republic Equatorial Guinea

    Country:

    Equatorial Guinea

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    10,832 sq. miles

    Population:

    40,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    4

    Monetary Unit:

    CFA Franc

    Languages:

    Spanish, Fang, Bubi, Pidgin English

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Protestant

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Malabo

    Natural Resources:

    wood, crude oil

    Major Exports:

    cocoa, wood, coffee

    Major Imports:

    petroleum, foodstuffs, textiles, machinery

    Form of Government:

    Republic Eritrea

    Country:

    Eritrea

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    36,170 sq. miles

    Population:

    3,500,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    97

    Monetary Unit:

    Birr

    Languages:

    Afar, Bilen, Kunama, Nara

    Religions:

    Islam, Eritean Orthodox

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +8

    Capital City:

    Asmara

    Natural Resources:

    Gold, potash, zinc, copper, salt

    Major Exports:

    Livestock, sorghum, textiles

    Major Imports:

    Processed goods, machinery, petroleum products

    Form of Government:

    In transition Ethiopia

    Country:

    Ethiopia

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    435,606 sq. miles

    Population:

    56,200,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    129

    Monetary Unit:

    Birr

    Languages:

    Amharic, Gallinga, Tigrigna

    Religions:

    Ethiopian Orthordox, Islam

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +8

    Capital City:

    Addis Ababa

    Natural Resources:

    potash, gold, platinum, copper

    Major Exports:

    coffee, leather products, gold

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, petroleum and petroleum products

    Form of Government:

    Republic Gabon

    Country:

    Gabon

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    103,346 sq. miles

    Population:

    1,300,000Population Density per square mile:

    13

    Monetary Unit:

    CFA Franc

    Languages:

    French, Fang, Others

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Protestant

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Libreville

    Natural Resources:

    wood, petroleum, iron ore, manganese, uranium

    Major Exports:

    crude oil, manganese, uranium

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, chemical products, machinery, petroleum products

    Form of Government:

    Republic Gambia

    Country:

    Gambia

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    4,127 sq. miles

    Population:

    1,100,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    266.5

    Monetary Unit:

    Dalasi

    Languages:

    English, Mandinka, Wolof

    Religions:

    Islam, Christian

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +5

    Capital City:

    Banjul

    Natural Resources:

    fish

    Major Exports:

    fish, cotton, palm kernals, peanuts

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, fuel, machinery, fuel

    Form of Government:

    Republic Ghana

    Country:

    Ghana

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    92, 100 sq. miles

    Population:

    18,497,206

    Population Density per square mile:

    201

    Monetary Unit:

    Cedi

    Languages:

    English, Various native tongues

    Religions:

    Christian, Islam, Animist

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +5

    Capital City:

    Accra

    Natural Resources:

    gold, cocoa, timber, fish, diamonds (industrial type). bauxite,manganese

    Major Exports:

    cocoa beans, gold, timber, tuna, bauxite, aluminum

    Major Imports:

    petroleum products, consumer goods, foodstuffs, capital equipment

    Form of Government:

    Republic Guinea

    Country:

    Guinea

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    94,964 sq. miles

    Population:

    6,500,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    68.4

    Monetary Unit:

    Franc

    Languages:

    French, Peul, Mande

    Religions:

    Islam, Christian

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +5

    Capital City:

    Conakry

    Natural Resources:

    bauxite, iron ore, diamonds, pineapples, bananas, coffee

    Major Exports:

    bauxite, diamonds, aluminum, pineapple, bananas, coffee

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, petroleum, machinery, textiles

    Form of Government:

    Republic Guinea Bissau

    Country:

    Guinea - Bissau

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    13,948 sq. miles

    Population:

    1,206,311

    Population Density per square mile:

    86.4

    Monetary Unit:

    Peso

    Languages:

    Portuguese, Crioulo, others

    Religions:

    Islam, Christian

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +5

    Capital City:

    Bissau

    Natural Resources:

    bauxite, fish, phosphates, petroleum, timber

    Major Exports:

    peanuts, cashews, fish, palm kernels

    Major Imports:

    capital equipment, consumer goods, petroleum, foodstuffs

    Form of Government:

    Republic Kenya

    Country:

    Kenya

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    224,960 sq. miles

    Population:

    28,300,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    126

    Monetary Unit:

    Shilling

    Languages:

    Swahili, English, Others

    Religions:

    Protestant, Roman Catholic, Islam

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +8

    Capital City:

    Nairobi

    Natural Resources:

    gold, limestone, minerals, wildlife

    Major Exports:

    tea, coffee, petroleum products, cement, soda ash

    Major Imports:

    rude oil, machinery, capital equipment

    Form of Government:

    Republic Lesotho

    Country:

    Lesotho

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    11,716 sq. miles

    Population:

    2,089,829

    Population Density per square mile:

    178

    Monetary Unit:

    Loti

    Languages:

    English, Sesotho, Zulu, Xhosa

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Lesotho Evangelical Church, Anglican

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +7

    Capital City:

    Maseru

    Natural Resources:

    diamonds

    Major Exports:

    wool, mohair, wheat, cattle, peas, beans, corn, baskets

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, clothing, vehicles, machinery

    Form of Government:

    Modified Constitutional Monarchy Liberia

    Country:

    Liberia

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    38,250 sq. miles

    Population:

    2,771,901

    Population Density per square mile:

    72.5

    Monetary Unit:

    Dollar

    Languages:

    English, Tribal Dialects

    Religions:

    Traditional, Christian, Islam

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +5

    Capital City:

    Monrovia

    Natural Resources:

    iron ore, gold, timber, diamonds

    Major Exports:

    iron ore, rubber, timber, coffee

    Major Imports:

    machinery, petroleum products, foodstuffs

    Form of Government:

    Republic Libya

    Country:

    Libya

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    679,359

    Population:

    5,690,727 sq. miles

    Population Density per square mile:

    8.4

    Monetary Unit:

    Dinar

    Languages:

    Arabic, Italian, English

    Religions:

    Islam

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Tripoli

    Natural Resources:

    petroleum, peanuts, hides, natural gas

    Major Exports:

    petroleum, peanuts, hides, natural gas

    Major Imports:

    machinery, foodstuffs, manufactured goods

    Form of Government:

    Islamic Arabic Socialist "mass - state" Madagascar

    Country:

    Madagascar

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    226,657 sq. miles

    Population:

    14,462,509

    Population Density per square mile:

    63.8

    Monetary Unit:

    Franc

    Languages:

    French, Malagasy

    Religions:

    Traditional, Roman Catholic, Islam, Protestant

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +8

    Capital City:

    Antananarivo

    Natural Resources:

    Graphite, chromium, bauxite

    Major Exports:

    Coffee, cloves, vanilla, sugar, petroleum products

    Major Imports:

    Foodstuffs, consumer goods, crude petroleum

    Form of Government:

    Republic Malawi

    Country:

    Malawi

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    45,747 sq. miles

    Population:

    9,840,474

    Population Density per square mile:

    215

    Monetary Unit:

    Kwacha

    Languages:

    English, Chichewa, Bantu, Tombuka

    Religions:

    Christian, Islam, Traditional

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +7

    Capital City:

    Lilongwe

    Natural Resources:

    limestone, uranium, coal, bauxite

    Major Exports:

    tobacco, sugar, tea, coffee, peanuts

    Major Imports:

    consumer goods, foodstuffs, petroleum, equipment

    Form of Government:

    Multiparty Democracy Mali

    Country:

    Mali

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    478,764 sq. miles

    Population:

    10,108,569

    Population Density per square mile:

    21

    Monetary Unit:

    CFA Franc

    Languages:French, Bambara, Senufo

    Religions:

    Islam, Traditional, Christian

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +5

    Capital City:

    Bamako

    Natural Resources:

    bauxite, iron ore manganese, salt, limestone, phosphate, gold

    Major Exports:

    cotton, livestock, gold

    Major Imports:

    machinery, foodstuffs, constructions material

    Form of Government:

    Republic Mauritania

    Country:

    Mauritania

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    419,212 sq. miles

    Population:

    2,300,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    5.8

    Monetary Unit:

    Ouguyia

    Languages:

    Arabic, French

    Religions:

    Islam

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +5

    Capital City:

    Nouakchott

    Natural Resources:

    copper, iron ore, gypsum, fish

    Major Exports:

    iron ore, fish, gypsum

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, petroleum, capital goods

    Form of Government:

    Islamic Republic Mauritius

    Country:

    Mauritius

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    787 sq. miles

    Population:

    1,168,256

    Population Density per square mile:

    1,484.4

    Monetary Unit:

    Rupee

    Languages:

    English French, Creole, Hindi, Urdu, Chinese

    Religions:

    Hindu, Roman Catholic, Islam

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +9

    Capital City:

    Port Louis

    Natural Resources:

    fish

    Major Exports:

    sugar, textiles

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, manufactured goods

    Form of Government:

    Republic Morocco

    Country:

    Morocco

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    172,413 sq. miles

    Population:

    29,200,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    169.4

    Monetary Unit:

    Dirham

    Languages:

    Arabic, French, Berber, Spanish

    Religions:

    Islam, Christian, Jewish

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +5

    Capital City:

    Rabat

    Natural Resources:

    phosphates, lead, manganese, fisheries

    Major Exports:

    consumer goods, phosphates, food

    Major Imports:

    fuels, capital goods, foodstuffs, consumer goods

    Form of Government:

    Constitutional Monarchy Mozambique

    Country:

    Mozambique

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    303,769 sq. miles

    Population:

    18,641,469

    Population Density per square mile:

    61.4

    Monetary Unit:

    Metical

    Languages:

    Portuguese, Bantu

    Religions:

    Hindu, Buddhist, Islam

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +7

    Capital City:

    Maputo

    Natural Resources:

    coal, titanium

    Major Exports:

    cashew nuts, sugar, shrimp, copra, citrus

    Major Imports:

    petroleum, foodstuffs, clothing, farm equipment

    Form of Government:

    Republic Namibia

    Country:

    Namibia

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    317,818 sq. miles

    Population:

    1,622,328

    Population Density per square mile:

    5.1

    Monetary Unit:

    Dollar

    Languages:

    Afrikaans, English, German

    Religions:

    Christian, Lutheran

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +7

    Capital City:

    Windhoek

    Natural Resources:

    diamonds, copper, lead, zinc, uranium, fish

    Major Exports:

    diamonds, copper, lead, zinc, beef, marble, uranium, gold

    Major Imports:

    fertilizer, foodstuffs, grain, fuel, petroleum products

    Form of Government:

    Republic Niger

    Country:

    Niger

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    489,189 sq. miles

    Population:

    9,671,848

    Population Density per square mile:

    19.8

    Monetary Unit:

    CFA Franc

    Languages:

    French, Hausa, Djema, Songhai

    Religions:

    Islam, Animist, Christian

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Niamey

    Natural Resources:

    uranium, coal, iron, ore, tin, phosphates

    Major Exports:

    uranium, cowpeas, livestock, hides

    Major Imports:

    fuels, machinery, foodstuffs, consumer goods

    Form of Government:

    Republic Nigeria

    Country:

    Nigeria

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    356,667 sq. miles

    Population:

    110,531,242

    Population Density per square mile:

    31

    Monetary Unit:

    naira

    Languages:

    French, Hausa, Yoruba, Ibo

    Religions:

    Islam, Animist, Christian

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Abuja

    Natural Resources:

    Petroleum, tin, columbite, iron ore, coal, limestone, lead

    Major Exports:

    Oil, cocoa, palm products, rubber

    Major Imports:

    consumer goods, capital equipment, chemicals

    Form of Government:

    In transition Principe(and Sao Tome)

    Country:

    Principe (and Sao Tome)

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    372 sq. miles

    Population:

    150,123

    Population Density per square mile:

    404

    Monetary Unit:

    Dobra

    Languages:

    Portuguese

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Evangelical Protestant, Seventh-Day Adventist

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +5

    Capital City:

    Sao Tome'

    Natural Resources:

    fish

    Major Exports:

    cocoa, coffee, copra, palm oil

    Major Imports:

    textiles, machinery, fuel, foodstuffs, electrical equipment

    Form of Government:

    Republic Rwanda

    Country:

    Rwanda

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    10,169 sq. miles

    Population:

    7,800,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    767

    Monetary Unit:

    Franc

    Languages:

    French, Kinyarwanda, Bantu

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Protestant, Islam, Animist

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +7

    Capital City:

    Kigali

    Natural Resources:

    gold, cassiterite, wolfram

    Major Exports:

    coffee, tea, tungsten, tin, pyrethrum

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, textiles, machinery, equipment, capital goods, steel

    Form of Government:

    Republic Senegal

    Country:

    Senegal

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    75,954 sq. miles

    Population:

    9,723,149

    Population Density per square mile:

    128

    Monetary Unit:

    CFA franc

    Languages:

    French, Wolof, Serer

    Religions:

    Islam

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +5

    Capital City:

    Dakar

    Natural Resources:

    Fish, phosphate, iron ore

    Major Exports:

    Peanuts, phosphate rock, fish, petroleum products

    Major Imports:

    Foodstuffs, consumer goods, machinery, petroleum products

    Form of Government:

    Republic Seychelles

    Country:

    Seychelles

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    175 sq. miles

    Population:

    78,641

    Population Density per square mile:

    449.4

    Monetary Unit:

    Rupee

    Languages:

    English, French, Creole

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Anglican

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +9

    Capital City:

    Victoria

    Natural Resources:

    fish

    Major Exports:

    fish, canned tuna, copra, cinnamon bark

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, tobacco, machinery, petroleum products, manufactured products

    Form of Government:

    Republic Sierra Leone

    Country:

    Sierra Leone

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    27,925 sq. miles

    Population:

    5,080,004

    Population Density per square mile:

    182

    Monetary Unit:

    Leone

    Languages:

    English, Kiro, Others

    Religions:

    Islam, Christian

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +5

    Capital City:

    Freetown

    Natural Resources:

    diamonds, bauxite, iron ore

    Major Exports:

    diamonds, rutile, bauxite, coffee, cocoa

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, petroleum products, capital goods

    Form of Government:

    In Transition Somalia

    Country:

    Somalia

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    246,300 sq. mile

    Population:

    6,841,695

    Population Density per square mile:

    27.8

    Monetary Unit:

    Schilling

    Languages:

    Somali, Arabic, English, Italian

    Religions:

    Islam (Sunni)

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +8

    Capital City:

    Mogadishu

    Natural Resources:

    uranium

    Major Exports:

    livestock, skins, hides, bananas

    Major Imports:

    textiles, foodstuffs, petroleum products

    Form of Government:

    In Transition South Africa

    Country:

    South Africa

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    472,359 sq. miles

    Population:

    42,834,520

    Population Density per square mile:

    90.7

    Monetary Unit:

    Rand

    Languages:

    Afrikaans, English, Nguni, Others

    Religions:

    Dutch Reformed, Anglican, Roman Catholic, Christian, Hindu, Islam

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +7

    Capital City:

    Cape Town (Legislative Capital)

    Natural Resources:

    gold, diamonds, platinum, uranium, coal, iron ore, manganese, phosphate

    Major Exports:

    gold, diamonds, foodstuffs, chemical

    Major Imports:

    machinery vehicle parts, chemicals, textiles, scientific instruments

    Form of Government:

    Federal Republic Sudan

    Country:

    Sudan

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    966,757 sq. miles

    Population:

    33,550,552

    Population Density per square mile:

    34.7

    Monetary Unit:

    Pound

    Languages:

    Arabic, Dinka, English

    Religions:

    Islam, Animist, Christian

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +7

    Capital City:

    Khartoum

    Natural Resources:

    crude oil, iron ore, copper, chrome

    Major Exports:

    cotton, peanuts, gum arabic, sesame

    Major Imports:

    petroleum products, machinery, chemicals

    Form of Government:

    Military Swaziland

    Country:

    Swaziland

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    6,704 sq. miles

    Population:

    966,462

    Population Density per square mile:

    144.2

    Monetary Unit:

    Lilangeni

    Languages:

    Siswati, English

    Religions:

    Christian, Animist

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +7

    Capital City:

    Mbabane

    Natural Resources:

    diamonds, asbestos

    Major Exports:

    sugar, wood pulp, asbestos, citrus fruits

    Major Imports:

    vehicles, petroleum products, chemicals, foodstuffs

    Form of Government:

    Constitutional Monarchy Tanzania

    Country:

    Tanzania

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    364,886 sq. miles

    Population:

    30,608,769

    Population Density per square mile:

    83.9

    Monetary Unit:

    Shilling

    Languages:

    Swahili, English

    Religions:

    Christian, Islam, Animist

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +8

    Capital City:

    Dar-es-Salaam

    Natural Resources:

    hydroelectric potential, phosphates, iron ore, coal

    Major Exports:

    coffee, cotton, sisal, cloves tobacco, tea

    Major Imports:

    manufactured goods, machinery, crude oil, foodstuffs

    Form of Government:

    Republic Toga

    Country:

    Toga

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    21,925 sq. miles

    Population:

    4,905,827

    Population Density per square mile:

    224

    Monetary Unit:

    CFA Franc

    Languages:

    Ewe, Mina, Kabye, Cotocoli, French

    Religions:

    Animist, Christian, Islam

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +5

    Capital City:

    Lome

    Natural Resources:

    marble, limestone, phosphate

    Major Exports:

    phosphate, cocoa, coffee, cotton

    Major Imports:

    consumer goods, fuels, machinery, foodstuffs, chemicals

    Form of Government:

    Republic Tunisia

    Country:

    Tunisia

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    63,170 sq. miles

    Population:

    9,380,404

    Population Density per square mile:

    148.5

    Monetary Unit:

    Dinar

    Languages:

    Arabic, French

    Religions:

    Islam ( Sunni), Christian, Jewish

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Tunis

    Natural Resources:

    oil, iron ore, phosphates, lead, zinc

    Major Exports:

    textiles, crude oil, olive oil, phosphoric acid, chemical fertilizers, triple

    Major Imports:

    consumer goods, foodstuffs, machinery

    Form of Government:

    Republic Uganda

    Country:

    Uganda

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    91,459 sq. miles

    Population:

    22,167,195

    Population Density per square mile:

    242.4

    Monetary Unit:

    Shilling

    Languages:

    English, Luganda, Swahili

    Religions:

    Christian, Islam

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +8

    Capital City:

    Kampala

    Natural Resources:

    copper, cobalt, limestone, salt

    Major Exports:

    cotton, tea, coffee

    Major Imports:

    machinery, petroleum products, metals, foodstuffs

    Form of Government:

    Republic Zambia

    Country:

    Zambia

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    290,586 sq. miles

    Population:

    9,460,736

    Population Density per square mile:

    32.5

    Monetary Unit:

    Kwacha

    Languages:

    English, and local dialects

    Religions:

    Animist, Roman Catholic, Protestant

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +7

    Capital City:

    Lusaka

    Natural Resources:

    copper, zinc, lead, cobalt, coal

    Major Exports:

    copper, zinc, lead, cobalt, tobacco

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, machinery, fuels, manufactured goods

    Form of Government:

    Republic Zimbabwe

    Country:

    Zimbabwe

    Geographic Region:

    Africa

    Land Area:

    150,803 sq. miles

    Population:

    11,044,147

    Population Density per square mile:

    73

    Monetary Unit:

    dollar

    Languages:

    English, Shona, Ndebele

    Religions:

    Christian, Animist, Syncretic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +7

    Capital City:

    Harare

    Natural Resources:

    copper, chrome, gold, nickel, tin, asbestos

    Major Exports:

    gold, tobacco, asbestos. copper

    Major Imports:

    machinery, petroleum products, transport equipment

    Form of Government:

    Republic Afghanistan

    Country:

    Afghanistan

    Geographic Region:

    Asia-Middle East-Far East

    Land Area:

    250,000 sq-miles

    Population:

    24,792,375

    Population Density per square mile:

    99

    Monetary Unit:

    Afghani

    Languages:

    Pushtu, Dari Persian, Others

    Religions:

    Islam

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +9.5

    Capital City:

    Kabul

    Natural Resources:

    natural gas, oil, coal, copper, sulfur, precious stones, salt, zinc

    Major Exports:

    fruits, natural gas, carpets

    Major Imports:

    petroleum products, sugar, tea, manufactured goods

    Form of Government:

    In Transition Armenia

    Country:

    Armenia

    Geographic Region:

    Asia-Middle East-Far East

    Land Area:

    11,506 sq. miles

    Population:

    3,421,775

    Population Density per square mile:

    297.4

    Monetary Unit:

    Dram

    Languages:

    Armenian

    Religions:

    Armenian Orthodox

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +8

    Capital City:

    Yerevan

    Natural Resources:

    gold, copper

    Major Exports:

    gold jewelry, aluminum. transport equipment

    Major Imports:

    Grain, foodstuffs, fuel

    Form of Government:

    Republic Azerbaijan

    Country:

    Azerbaijan

    Geographic Region:

    Asia-Middle East-Far East

    Land Area:

    33,436 sq. miles

    Population:

    7,855,576

    Population Density per square mile:

    235

    Monetary Unit:

    Manat

    Languages:

    Azeri, Russian

    Religions:

    Muslim, Russian Orthodox

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +8

    Capital City:

    Baku

    Natural Resources:

    petroleum, natural gas, iron ore

    Major Exports:

    oil, gas, chemicals, oil field equipment, textiles, cotton

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, machinery, textiles, consumer goods

    Form of Government:

    Republic Bahrain

    Country:

    Bahrain

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    239 sq. miles

    Population:

    616,342

    Population Density per square mile:

    2,578.8

    Monetary Unit:

    Dinar

    Languages:

    Arabic, Farsi, Urdu, English

    Religions:

    Muslim

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +8

    Capital City:

    Manama

    Natural Resources:

    oil, natural gas, fish

    Major Exports:

    petroleum, aluminum

    Major Imports:

    crude oil

    Form of Government:

    Traditional Monarchy Bangladesh

    Country:

    Bangladesh

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    55,598 sq. miles

    Population:

    127,567,002

    Population Density per square mile:

    2,294.4

    Monetary Unit:

    Taka

    Languages:

    Bangla, English

    Religions:

    Muslim, Hindu, Others

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +11

    Capital City:

    Dhaka

    Natural Resources:

    natural gas, timber

    Major Exports:

    garments, jute, leather, shrimp

    Major Imports:

    capital goods, petroleum, foodstuffs, textiles

    Form of Government:

    Parliamentary Democracy Bhutan

    Country:

    Bhutan

    Geographic Region:

    Asia- Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    18,147 sq. miles

    Population:

    1,908,307

    Population Density per square mile:

    105

    Monetary Unit:

    Ngultrums, Rupees

    Languages:

    Dzongkha, others

    Religions:

    Lamaistic Buddhism, Hinduism

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +10.5

    Capital City:

    Timphu

    Natural Resources:

    timber, water power, gypsum, calcium carbide

    Major Exports:

    cardamom, gypsum, timber, handicrafts

    Major Imports:

    fuels, lubricants, grain, machinery, vehicles

    Form of Government:

    Monarchy Brunei Darussalam

    Country:

    Brunei Darussalam

    Geographic Region:

    Asia- Middle East- Far East

    Land Area:

    2,228 sq. miles

    Population:

    315,292

    Population Density per square mile:

    142

    Monetary Unit:

    Dollar

    Languages:

    Malay, English, Chinese

    Religions:

    Muslim, Buddhist, Christian

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +13

    Capital City:

    Bandar Seri Begawan

    Natural Resources:

    petroleum, natural gas, timber

    Major Exports:

    crude oil, natural gas, petroleum products

    Major Imports:

    machinery, foodstuffs, chemicals, manufactured goods

    Form of Government:

    Independent Sultanate Burma (Myanmar)

    Country:

    Burma (Myanmar)

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    261,969 sq. miles

    Population:

    47,305,319

    Population Density per square mile:

    181

    Monetary Unit:

    Kyat

    Languages:

    Burmese

    Religions:

    Buddhist, Muslim, Christian

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +11.5

    Capital City:

    Yangon (formerly Rangoon)

    Natural Resources:

    crude oil, timber, tin, copper, tungsten

    Major Exports:

    teakwood, rice, beans

    Major Imports:

    machinery, transport equipment, foodstuffs, chemicals

    Form of Government:

    Military Cambodia

    Country:

    Cambodia

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    69,900 sq. miles

    Population:

    11,339,562

    Population Density per square mile:

    162

    Monetary Unit:

    New Riel

    Languages:

    Khmer, French

    Religions:

    Theravada Buddhism

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +12

    Capital City:

    Phnom Penh

    Natural Resources:

    timber, gemstones, iron ore, manganese, phosphates, hydro power potential

    Major Exports:

    timber, rubber, soybeans

    Major Imports:

    petroleum products, construction materials

    Form of Government:

    Constitutional Monarchy China

    Country:

    China

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    3,705,392 sq. miles

    Population:

    1,236,914,658

    Population Density per square mile:

    333.8

    Monetary Unit:

    Yuan

    Languages:

    Chinese, Mandarin, Yue, Wu, Minbei, Others

    Religions:

    Officially Atheist, Taoism, Buddhism, Muslim, Christian

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +12

    Capital City:

    Beijing

    Natural Resources:

    coal, iron ore, crude oil, tin, mercury, world's largest hydropower potential

    Major Exports:

    machinery (electrical), fuels, clothing, toys, footwear, leather, plastics, fabrics

    Major Imports:

    machinery, mineral fuels, cotton, yarn, iron and steel

    Form of Government:

    Communist Party - led state Georgia

    Country:

    Georgia

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    26,911 sq. miles

    Population:

    5,l08,527

    Population Density per square mile:

    190

    Monetary Unit:

    Lari

    Languages:

    Georgian, Armenian, Russian

    Religions:

    Christian Orthodox, Muslim, Armenian Apostalic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +8

    Capital City:

    Tbilisi

    Natural Resources:

    forest resources, water power, manganese

    Major Exports:

    tea, wine, citrus fruits

    Major Imports:

    fuel, grain, machinery, foodstuffs

    Form of Government:

    Republic India

    Country:

    India

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    1,269,340 sq. miles

    Population:

    984,003,683

    Population Density per square mile:

    775

    Monetary Unit:

    Rupee

    Languages:

    Hindi, English, Others

    Religions:

    Hindu, Muslim, Christian

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +10.5

    Capital City:

    New Delhi

    Natural Resources:

    coal ( 4th largest coal reserve in the world), iron ore, manganese, mica, bauxite

    Major Exports:

    clothing, gems, jewelry, chemicals, engineering goods

    Major Imports:

    machinery, petroleum, fertilizer

    Form of Government:

    Federal Republic Indonesia

    Country:

    Indonesia

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    741,097 sq. miles

    Population:

    212,941,810

    Population Density per square mile:

    287

    Monetary Unit:

    Rupiah

    Languages:

    Bahasa Indonesian, English, Dutch

    Religions:

    Muslim, Protestant, Roman Catholic, Hindu

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +12

    Capital City:

    Jakarta

    Natural Resources:

    crude oil, tin, natural gas, timber, nickel

    Major Exports:

    textiles, garments, footwear, wood products, electronics

    Major Imports:

    manufactured goods, foodstuffs, raw materials

    Form of Government:

    Republic Iran

    Country:

    Iran

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    636,294 sq. miles

    Population:

    68,959,931

    Population Density per square mile:

    108

    Monetary Unit:

    Rial

    Languages:

    Persian, Turkish, Kurdish

    Religions:

    Muslim, Zoroastrian

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +8.5

    Capital City:

    Teheran

    Natural Resources:

    petroleum, natural gas, coal, chromium

    Major Exports:

    petroleum, carpets, fruits, nuts, hides

    Major Imports:

    machinery, military supplies, foodstuffs, metal works

    Form of Government:

    Islamic Republic Iraq

    Country:

    Iraq

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    168,754 sq. miles

    Population:

    20,722,287

    Population Density per square mile:

    123

    Monetary Unit:

    Dinar

    Languages:

    Arabic, Kurdish, Assyrian, Armenian

    Religions:

    Muslim, Christian, Others

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +8

    Capital City:

    Baghdad

    Natural Resources:

    crude oil, natural gas, sulfur, phosphates

    Major Exports:

    crude oil

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, manufactured goods

    Form of Government:

    Republic Israel

    Country:

    Israel

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    8,019 sq. miles

    Population:

    5,643,966

    Population Density per square mile:

    704

    Monetary Unit:

    Shekel

    Languages:

    Hebrew, Arab, English

    Religions:

    Judaism, Islam, Christian, Druze

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +7

    Capital City:

    Jerusalem

    Natural Resources:

    copper, phosphates, bromide, potash, clay

    Major Exports:

    machinery, cut diamonds, textiles, chemicals, clothing

    Major Imports:

    military equipment, oil, rough diamonds, investment foods

    Form of Government:

    Republic Japan

    Country:

    Japan

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    145,882 sq. miles

    Population:

    125,931,533

    Population Density per square mile:

    863

    Monetary Unit:

    Yen

    Languages:

    Japanese

    Religions:

    Shinto, Buddhist, Christian

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +14

    Capital City:

    Tokyo

    Natural Resources:

    fish, minerals

    Major Exports:

    motor vehicles, consumer electronics

    Major Imports:

    fossil fuels, foodstuffs, raw materials

    Form of Government:

    Parliamentary Democracy Jordan

    Country:

    Jordan

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    34,445 sq. miles

    Population:

    4,434,978

    Population Density per square mile:

    129

    Monetary Unit:

    Dinar

    Languages:

    Arabic, English

    Religions:

    Sunni Muslim, Christian

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +7

    Capital City:

    Amman

    Natural Resources:

    phosphates, potash, shale oil.

    Major Exports:

    phosphates, fertilizers, potash, agricultural products

    Major Imports:

    machinery, crude oil, foodstuffs, transport equipment, manufactured goods

    Form of Government:

    Constitutional Monarchy Kazakhstan

    Country:

    Kazakhstan

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    1,049,151 sq. miles

    Population:

    16,846,808

    Population Density per square mile:

    16

    Monetary Unit:

    Tenge

    Languages:

    Kazakh, Russian

    Religions:

    Muslim, Russian Orthodox, Protestant

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +11

    Capital City:

    Astana

    Natural Resources:

    petroleum, natural gas, coal, iron ore, manganese

    Major Exports:

    oil, ferrous and nonferrous metals, grain, chemicals, wool

    Major Imports:

    machinery, oil, gas

    Form of Government:

    Republic Korea (North)

    Country:

    Korea (North)

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    46,541 sq. miles

    Population:

    21,234,387

    Population Density per square mile:

    456

    Monetary Unit:

    Won

    Languages:

    Korean

    Religions:

    Buddhism, Confucianism

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +14

    Capital City:

    Pyongyang

    Natural Resources:

    coal, lead, tungsten, zinc, graphite

    Major Exports:

    minerals, metal products, agricultural and fishery products

    Major Imports:

    machinery, petroleum, coal, grain

    Form of Government:

    Communist State Korea (South)

    Country:

    Korea ( South)

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    38,023 sq. miles

    Population:

    46,416,796

    Population Density per square mile:

    1,220.7

    Monetary Unit:

    Won

    Languages:

    Korean, English

    Religions:

    Christian, Buddhism, Confucianism

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +14

    Capital City:

    Seoul

    Natural Resources:

    coal, tungsten, graphite, molybdenum

    Major Exports:

    electronic and electrical equipment, steel, motor vehicles

    Major Imports:

    machinery, oil, steel, textiles, transport equipment

    Form of Government:

    Republic Kuwait

    Country:

    Kuwait

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    6,880 sq. miles

    Population:

    1,913,285

    Population Density per square mile:

    278

    Monetary Unit:

    Dinar

    Languages:

    Arabic, English

    Religions:

    Muslim, Christian, Hindu, Parsi

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +8

    Capital City:

    Kuwait City

    Natural Resources:

    petroleum, natural gas, fish, shrimp

    Major Exports:

    oil, fertilizers

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, vehicles, clothing, construction materials

    Form of Government:

    Constitutional Monarchy Kyrgyzstan

    Country:

    Kyrgyzstan

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    76,641 sq. miles

    Population:

    4,522,281

    Population Density per square mile:

    59

    Monetary Unit:

    Som

    Languages:

    Kirghiz, Russian

    Religions:

    Muslim, Russian Orthodox

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +11

    Capital City:

    Bishkek

    Natural Resources:

    gold, coal, natural gas, hydroelectric potential, petroleum, lead, zinc

    Major Exports:

    wool, cotton, tobacco, meat, metals

    Major Imports:

    lumber, grain, fuel, machinery

    Form of Government:

    Republic Laos

    Country:

    Laos

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    91,429 sq. miles

    Population:

    5,260,842

    Population Density per square mile:

    58

    Monetary Unit:

    New Kip

    Languages:

    Lao, French, English, Others

    Religions:

    Buddhist, Animist

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +12

    Capital City:

    Vientiane

    Natural Resources:

    tin, timber, gypsum, water power potential

    Major Exports:

    electricity, coffee, tin, wood products,

    Major Imports:

    machinery, vehicles, fuel

    Form of Government:

    Communist State Lebanon

    Country:

    Lebanon

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    4,015 sq. miles

    Population:

    3,505,794

    Population Density per square mile:

    873

    Monetary Unit:

    Pound

    Languages:

    Arabic, French, Armenian, English

    Religions:

    Islam, Christian

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +7

    Capital City:

    Beirut

    Natural Resources:

    limestone, salt, iron ore, fresh water

    Major Exports:

    paper and paper products, textiles, foodstuffs

    Major Imports:

    machinery, transport equipment, foodstuffs, consumer goods

    Form of Government:

    Republic Malaysia

    Country:

    Malaysia

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    127,317 sq. miles

    Population:

    20,932,901

    Population Density per square mile:

    164

    Monetary Unit:

    Ringgit

    Languages:

    Peninsular Malaysia-Malay, English, Chinese dialects

    Religions:

    Buddhist, Hindu, Sabah, Muslim, Christian

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +13

    Capital City:

    Kuala Lumpur

    Natural Resources:

    tin, crude oil, timber, copper, iron ore

    Major Exports:

    petroleum products, palm oil, electronic equipment, rubber, textiles, wood products

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, crude oil, chemicals, capital equipment, consumer goods

    Form of Government:

    Federal Parliamentary Democracy with a Constitutional Monarchy Maldives

    Country:

    Maldives

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    116 sq. miles

    Population:

    290,211

    Population Density per square mile:

    2,501.8

    Monetary Unit:

    Rufiyaa

    Languages:

    Divehi, English

    Religions:

    Sunni Muslim

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +10

    Capital City:

    Male

    Natural Resources:

    fish

    Major Exports:

    fish, clothing

    Major Imports:

    consumer goods, capital goods, petroleum products

    Form of Government:

    Republic Mongolia

    Country:

    Mongolia

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    604,247 sq. miles

    Population:

    2,578,530

    Population Density per square mile:

    4.3

    Monetary Unit:

    Tughrik

    Languages:

    Khalkha Mongol, Turkic, Russian, Chinese

    Religions:

    Tibetan, Buddhist, Muslim

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +13

    Capital City:

    Ulan Bator

    Natural Resources:

    oil, coal, copper, tungsten, molybdenum, phosphates

    Major Exports:

    copper, livestock, wool hides, metals

    Major Imports:

    machinery, fuels, foodstuffs, chemicals, industrial consumer goods

    Form of Government:

    Republic Nepal

    Country:

    Nepal

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    54,363 sq. miles

    Population:

    23,698,421

    Population Density per square mile:

    436

    Monetary Unit:

    Rupee

    Languages:

    Nepali

    Religions:

    Hindu, Buddhist, Muslim

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +10.5

    Capital City:

    Katmandu

    Natural Resources:

    quartz, timber, scenic beauty, hydroelectric potential

    Major Exports:

    clothing, carpets, leather goods, jute goods, grain

    Major Imports:

    petroleum products, machinery, fertilizer

    Form of Government:

    Constitutional Monarchy Oman

    Country:

    Oman

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    82,031 sq. miles

    Population:

    2,363,591

    Population Density per square mile:

    29

    Monetary Unit:

    Rial

    Languages:

    Arabic, English, Baluchi, Urdu

    Religions:

    Ibadhi Muslim, Sunni Muslim, Hindu

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +9

    Capital City:

    Muscat

    Natural Resources:

    cruse oil, copper, asbestos, limestone

    Major Exports:

    petroleum, fish, processed copper, textiles

    Major Imports:

    machinery, manufactured goods, livestock, lubricants, foodstuffs

    Form of Government:

    Absolute Monarchy Pakistan

    Country:

    Pakistan

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    310,402 sq. miles

    Population:

    135,135,195

    Population Density per square mile:

    435

    Monetary Unit:

    Rupee

    Languages:

    Punjabi, Sindhi, Siraiki, Pashtu, English, others

    Religions:

    Muslim, Christian, Hindu

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +10

    Capital City:

    Islamabad

    Natural Resources:

    natural gas reserves, coal, iron ore

    Major Exports:

    rice, cotton, textiles, carpets, leather

    Major Imports:

    petroleum and petroleum products, machinery, cooking oils, transportation equipment

    Form of Government:

    Republic Philippines

    Country:

    Philippines

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    115,830 sq. miles

    Population:

    77,725,862

    Population Density per square mile:

    671

    Monetary Unit:

    Peso

    Languages:

    Pilipino (Tagalog), English

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Protestant, Muslim, Buddhist

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +13

    Capital City:

    Manila

    Natural Resources:

    timber, crude oil, nickel, cobalt, silver

    Major Exports:

    electronics, tele-communications, machinery, garments

    Major Imports:

    raw materials, capital goods, consumer goods

    Form of Government:

    Republic Qatar

    Country:

    Qatar

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    4,247 sq. miles

    Population:

    697,126

    Population Density per square mile:

    164

    Monetary Unit:

    Riyal

    Languages:

    Arabic, English

    Religions:

    Muslim

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +8

    Capital City:

    Doha

    Natural Resources:

    crude oil, natural gas, fish

    Major Exports:

    petroleum products, steel, fertilizers

    Major Imports:

    machinery, foodstuffs, chemicals, consumer goods

    Form of Government:

    Traditional Monarchy Saudi Arabia

    Country:

    Saudi Arabia

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    756,982 sq. miles

    Population:

    20,087,965

    Population Density per square mile:

    26.5

    Monetary Unit:

    Riyal

    Languages:

    Arabic

    Religions:

    Muslim

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +8

    Capital City:

    Riyadh

    Natural Resources:

    crude oil, natural gas, iron ore, gold, copper

    Major Exports:

    petroleum and petroleum products

    Major Imports:

    machinery, equipment, foodstuffs, chemicals, vehicles, textiles

    Form of Government:

    Monarchy with Council of Ministers Singapore

    Country:

    Singapore

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    244 sq. miles

    Population:

    3,490,356

    Population Density per square mile:

    14,304.7

    Monetary Unit:

    Dollar

    Languages:

    Chinese, Malay, Tamil, English

    Religions:

    Buddhist, others

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +13

    Capital City:

    Singapore

    Natural Resources:

    fish, deepwater ports

    Major Exports:

    computer equipment, rubber, petroleum products, tele-communications equipment

    Major Imports:

    aircraft, foodstuffs, chemicals, petroleum

    Form of Government:

    Republic Sri Lanka

    Country:

    Sri Lanka

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    25,332 sq. miles

    Population:

    18,933,558

    Population Density per square mile:

    747

    Monetary Unit:

    Rupee

    Languages:

    Sinhala, Tamil

    Religions:

    Buddhist, Hindu, Christian, Muslim

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +10.5

    Capital City:

    Colombo

    Natural Resources:

    limestone, graphite, gems, phosphate

    Major Exports:

    tea, textiles, garments, gems, rubber, petroleum products

    Major Imports:

    petroleum, machinery, textiles, sugar, transport equipment

    Form of Government:

    Republic Syria

    Country:

    Syria

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    71,498 sq. miles

    Population:

    16,673, 282

    Population Density per square mile:

    233

    Monetary Unit:

    Pound

    Languages:

    Arabic, Kurdish, Armenian, French

    Religions:

    Muslim, Alawite, Druze, Christian

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +8

    Capital City:

    Damascus

    Natural Resources:

    crude oil, chrome, phosphates, manganese, asphalt, iron ore, foodstuffs

    Major Exports:

    petroleum, textiles, foodstuffs, livestock

    Major Imports:

    machinery, foodstuffs, chemicals, metals, textiles

    Form of Government:

    Republic (under military regime) Taiwan

    Country:

    Taiwan

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    13,982 sq. miles

    Population:

    21,908,135

    Population Density per square mile:

    1,577

    Monetary Unit:

    Dollar

    Languages:

    Mandarin Chinese, Taiwanese, Hakka

    Religions:

    Buddhist, Confucian, Taoist

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +13

    Capital City:

    Taipei

    Natural Resources:

    natural gas, coal, limestone, marble, asbestos

    Major Exports:

    electrical equipment, electronic, products

    Major Imports:

    machinery, electrical equipment, electronic products

    Form of Government:

    Multi-Party Democratic Regime Tajikistan

    Country:

    Tajikistan

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    55,251 sq. miles

    Population:

    6,020,095

    Population Density per square mile:

    109

    Monetary Unit:

    Ruble

    Languages:

    Tajik

    Religions:

    Muslim

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +11

    Capital City:

    Dushanbe

    Natural Resources:

    hydropower potential, petroleum, mercury, uranium, coal

    Major Exports:

    aluminum, cotton, fruits, textiles

    Major Imports:

    fuels, chemicals, machinery, textiles, transport equipment, foodstuffs

    Form of Government:

    Republic Thailand

    Country:

    Thailand

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    198,456 sq. miles

    Population:

    60,037,366

    Population Density per square mile:

    303

    Monetary Unit:

    Baht

    Languages:

    Thai, English

    Religions:

    Buddhist, Muslim, Christian, Hindu

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +12

    Capital City:

    Bangkok

    Natural Resources:

    tin, rubber, natural gas, tungsten, tantalum

    Major Exports:

    manufactures

    Major Imports:

    capital goods, consumer goods, fuels

    Form of Government:

    Constitutional Monarchy Turkey

    Country:

    Turkey

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    301,382 sq. miles

    Population:

    64,556,511

    Population Density per square mile:

    214

    Monetary Unit:

    Lira

    Languages:

    Turkish, Kurdish, Arabic

    Religions:

    Muslim

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +7

    Capital City:

    Ankara

    Natural Resources:

    antimony, coal, chromium, mercury, copper

    Major Exports:

    steel products, textiles, garments

    Major Imports:

    machinery, fuels, raw materials, foodstuffs

    Form of Government:

    Republic Turkmenistan

    Country:

    Turkmenistan

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    188,456 sq. miles

    Population:

    4,297,629

    Population Density per square mile:

    23

    Monetary Unit:

    Manat

    Languages:

    Turkmen, Uzbek, Russian

    Religions:

    Muslim, Eastern Orthodox

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +10

    Capital City:

    Ashkhabad

    Natural Resources:

    petroleum, natural gas, coal, sulfur, salt

    Major Exports:

    natural gas, cotton, petroleum products, textiles, carpets

    Major Imports:

    machinery, grain, plastics, rubber, foodstuffs

    Form of Government:

    Republic United Arab Emirates

    Country:

    United Arab Emirates

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    31,969 sq. miles

    Population:

    2,303,088

    Population Density per square mile:

    72

    Monetary Unit:

    Dirham

    Languages:

    Arabic, Hindi, Urdu, Persian, English

    Religions:

    Muslim, Christian, Hindu

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +9

    Capital City:

    Abu Dhabi

    Natural Resources:

    crude oil, natural gas

    Major Exports:

    natural gas, fish, dates

    Major Imports:

    manufactured goods, machinery, chemicals, foodstuffs

    Form of Government:

    Federation of Emirates Uzbekistan

    Country:

    Uzbekistan

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    172,741 sq. miles

    Population:

    23,784,321

    Population Density per square mile:

    138

    Monetary Unit:

    Som

    Languages:

    Uzbek, Russian, Tajik

    Religions:

    Muslim, Eastern Orthodox

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +11

    Capital City:

    Tashkent

    Natural Resources:

    natural gas, coal, petroleum, gold, uranium

    Major Exports:

    cotton, gold, natural gas, fertilizer, metals, vehicles, foodstuffs

    Major Imports:

    grain, machinery, foodstuffs, consumer durables

    Form of Government:

    Republic Vietnam

    Country:

    Vietnam

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    127,243 sq. miles

    Population:

    76,236,259

    Population Density per square mile:

    599

    Monetary Unit:

    New dong

    Languages:

    Vietnamese, French, Chinese, English, Khmer

    Religions:

    Buddhist, Taoist, Roman Catholic, Others

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +12

    Capital City:

    Hanoi

    Natural Resources:

    phosphates, coal, bauxite, manganese, chromate

    Major Exports:

    crude oil, rice, coffee, rubber, tea, footwear, garments

    Major Imports:

    petroleum products, machinery, grain, cotton, motorcycles

    Form of Government:

    Communist Yemen

    Country:

    Yemen

    Geographic Region:

    Asia - Middle East - Far East

    Land Area:

    203,850 sq. miles

    Population:

    16,387,963

    Population Density per square mile:

    80

    Monetary Unit:

    Rial

    Languages:

    Arabic

    Religions:

    Muslim, others

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +8

    Capital City:

    Sana'a

    Natural Resources:

    petroleum, fish, rock salt, marble, coal

    Major Exports:

    crude oil, cotton, coffee, fish

    Major Imports:

    textiles, manufactured goods, petroleum products, cement, foodstuffs, machinery, chemicals

    Form of Government:

    Republic Albania

    Country:

    Albania

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    11,100 sq. miles

    Population:

    3,330,754

    Population Density per square mile:

    300

    Monetary Unit:

    Lek

    Languages:

    Albanian, Greek

    Religions:

    Islam, Christian

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Tirane

    Natural Resources:

    crude oil, natural gas, coal, chromium, copper

    Major Exports:

    asphalt, petroleum products, metals

    Major Imports:

    machinery, consumer goods, grains

    Form of Government:

    Republic Andorra

    Country:

    Andorra

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    185 sq. miles

    Population:

    162,000

    Density per square mile:

    876

    Monetary Unit:

    Franc & Peseta

    Languages:

    Catalan, French, Spanish

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic

    Time Zone:

    +6

    Capital City:

    Andorra la Vella

    Natural Resources:

    water power, mineral water

    Major Exports:

    electricity, tobacco products, furniture

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, consumer goods

    Form of Government:

    Parliamentary Co-Principality Austria

    Country:

    Austria

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    32,377 sq. miles

    Population:

    8,133,611

    Population Density per square mile:

    251

    Monetary Unit:

    Schilling

    Languages:

    German

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Vienna

    Natural Resources:

    iron ore, petroleum, timber, magnesite, coal, copper, water power

    Major Exports:

    iron, steel, timber, paper, textiles, chemical products

    Major Imports:

    machinery, foodstuffs, chemicals, textiles

    Form of Government:

    Parliamentary Democracy Belarus

    Country:

    Belarus

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    80,134 sq. miles

    Population:

    10,373,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    129.4

    Monetary Unit:

    Ruble

    Languages:

    Russian, Byelorussian

    Religions:

    Orthodoxy

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +8

    Capital City:

    Minsk

    Natural Resources:

    timber, peat, oil, natural gas

    Major Exports:

    machinery, foodstuffs, transport equipment, chemicals,

    Major Imports:

    fuel, natural gas, textiles, sugar

    Form of Government:

    Republic Belgium

    Country:

    Belgium

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    11,799 sq. miles

    Population:

    10,200,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    864.4

    Monetary Unit:

    Franc

    Languages:

    Flemish, French, German

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Brussels

    Natural Resources:

    coal, natural gas

    Major Exports:

    iron, steel, transportation equipment, tractors, diamonds

    Major Imports:

    fuels, grain, chemicals

    Form of Government:

    Parliamentary Democracy Bosnia and Herzegovina

    Country:

    Bosnia and Herzegovina

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    19,741 sq. miles

    Population:

    3,500,000

    Density per square mile:

    177.3

    Monetary Unit:

    Marka

    Languages:

    Serbo-Croatian

    Religions:

    Muslim, Orthodox, Catholic, Protestant

    Time Zone:

    +6

    Capital City:

    Sarajevo

    Natural Resources:

    Coal, iron, bauxite, timber, manganese

    Major Exports:

    152 million in goods

    Major Imports:

    1.1 billion in goods

    Form of Government:

    Republic Bulgaria

    Country:

    Bulgaria

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    44,365 sq. miles

    Population:

    8,240,426

    Population Density per square mile:

    185.7

    Monetary Unit:

    Lev

    Languages:

    Bulgarian, Turkish

    Religions:

    Eastern Orthodox, Muslim

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +7

    Capital City:

    Sofia

    Natural Resources:

    bauxite, copper, lead, zinc, coal

    Major Exports:

    Machinery, equipment, textiles, minerals, fuels, chemicals, plastics

    Major Imports:

    fuels, raw materials, metals

    Form of Government:

    Republic Croatia

    Country:

    Croatia

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    21,829 sq. miles

    Population:

    450,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    20.6

    Monetary Unit:

    Kuna

    Languages:

    Serbo - Croatian

    Religions:

    Catholic, Orthodox, Slavic Muslim

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Zagreb

    Natural Resources:

    oil, coal, bauxite, iron ore, calcium

    Major Exports:

    chemicals, machinery, transport equipment

    Major Imports:

    chemicals, foodstuffs, fuels, lubricants

    Form of Government:

    Parliamentary Democracy Cyprus

    Country:

    Cyprus

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    3,571 sq. miles

    Population:

    748, 982

    Population Density per square mile:

    209.7

    Monetary Unit:

    Pound

    Languages:

    Greek, Turkish, English

    Religions:

    Greek Orthodox, Muslim

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +7

    Capital City:

    Nicosia

    Natural Resources:

    copper, zinc, pyrites, asbestos, gypsum, timber

    Major Exports:

    citrus, potatoes, grapes, wine, cement, clothing, shoes

    Major Imports:

    petroleum, lubricants, foodstuffs, machinery

    Form of Government:

    Republic Czech Republic

    Country:

    Czech Republic

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    30,449 sq. miles

    Population:

    10,286,470

    Population Density per square mile:

    338

    Monetary Unit:

    Koruna

    Languages:

    Czech, Slovak

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Protestant

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Prague

    Natural Resources:

    hard coal, soft coal, kaolin, clay, graphite

    Major Exports:

    machinery and equipment, fuel manufactured goods, foodstuffs

    Major Imports:

    fuel, raw materials, manufactured goods

    Form of Government:

    Republic Denmark

    Country:

    Denmark

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    16,633 sq. miles

    Population:

    5,333,617

    Population Density per square mile:

    320.6

    Monetary Unit:

    Krone

    Languages:

    Danish, German, Faroese

    Religions:

    Lutheran, Protestant, Roman catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Copenhagen

    Natural Resources:

    crude oil, natural gas, fish, salt, limestone

    Major Exports:

    machinery, meat, fuels, ships, dairy products, fish, chemicals

    Major Imports:

    machinery, and equipment, grain, foodstuffs, paper, textiles

    Form of Government:

    Constitutional Monarchy England(United Kingdom)

    Country:

    England (United Kingdom)

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    94,525 sq. miles

    Population:

    58,970,119

    Population Density per square mile:

    623.8

    Monetary Unit:

    Pound

    Languages:

    English, Welsh, Scottish

    Religions:

    Anglican, Roman Catholic, Muslim, Presbyterian, Methodist, Sikh, Hindu, Jewish

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +5

    Capital City:

    London

    Natural Resources:

    coal, crude oil, natural gas, tin, limestone

    Major Exports:

    manufactured goods, machinery, fuels, chemicals, transport equipment

    Major Imports:

    machinery, foodstuffs, consumer goods, manufactured goods

    Form of Government:

    Constitutional Monarchy Estonia

    Country:

    Estonia

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    17,413 sq. miles

    Population:

    1,500,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    86

    Monetary Unit:

    Kroon

    Languages:

    Estonian, Russian, Latvian, Ukrainian

    Religions:

    Evangelical Lutheran, Russian Orthodox, Estonian Orthodox

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +7

    Capital City:

    Tallinn

    Natural Resources:

    shale oil, peat, amber, phosphorite, cambrian blue clay

    Major Exports:

    textiles, food products, machinery and equipment, metals

    Major Imports:

    machinery and equipment, metals, foodstuffs, minerals, textiles

    Form of Government:

    Republic Finland

    Country:

    Finland

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    130,119 sq. miles

    Population:

    5,149,242

    Population Density per square mile:

    35.6

    Monetary Unit:

    Markka

    Languages:

    Finnish, Swedish

    Religions:

    Lutheran, Eastern Orthodox

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +7

    Capital City:

    Helsinki

    Natural Resources:

    timber, copper, zinc, iron ore, silver

    Major Exports:

    paper products, pulp, machinery, chemicals

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, chemicals, petroleum, petroleum products

    Form of Government:

    Constitutional Government France

    Country:

    France

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    176,460 sq. miles

    Population:

    58,804,944

    Population Density per square mile:

    333

    Monetary Unit:

    Franc

    Languages:

    French

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Paris

    Natural Resources:

    coal, iron ore, bauxite, fish, timber

    Major Exports:

    machinery, transport equipment, chemicals, foodstuffs, steel products,

    Major Imports:

    crude petroleum, machinery and equipment, chemicals, agricultural products

    Form of Government:

    Republic Germany(United)

    Country:

    Germany (United)

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    137,826 sq. miles

    Population:

    82,079,454

    Population Density per square mile:

    595.5

    Monetary Unit:

    Deutschmark

    Languages:

    German

    Religions:

    Protestant, Roman Catholic, Muslim

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Berlin

    Natural Resources:

    iron ore, coal, timber, uranium, natural gas, salt, nickel

    Major Exports:

    machines, precision tools, chemicals, vehicles, iron and steel products, fuels

    Major Imports:

    manufactures, agricultural products, fuels

    Form of Government:

    Federal Republic Greece

    Country:

    Greece

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    51,146 sq. miles

    Population:

    10,622,138

    Population Density per square mile:

    207.7

    Monetary Unit:

    Drachma

    Languages:

    Greek, English, French

    Religions:

    Greek Orthodox, Muslim

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +7

    Capital City:

    Athens

    Natural Resources:

    bauxite, lignite, crude oil, marble, magnesite

    Major Exports:

    manufactured goods, fuels, animals, lubricants

    Major Imports:

    machinery, automotive equipment, consumer goods, petroleum, chemicals, foodstuffs

    Form of Government:

    Parliamentary Republic Holland(Netherlands)

    Country:

    Holland (Netherlands)

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    16,033 sq. miles

    Population:

    15,731,112

    Population Density per square mile:

    981

    Monetary Unit:

    Guilder

    Languages:

    Dutch

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Protestant, Muslim

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Amsterdam

    Natural Resources:

    natural gas, crude oil, fertile soil

    Major Exports:

    foodstuffs, natural gas, chemicals, metal products, textiles, tobacco products

    Major Imports:

    raw materials, consumer goods, crude petroleum

    Form of Government:

    Parliamentary Democracy under a Constitutional Monarch Hungary

    Country:

    Hungary

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    35,919 sq. miles

    Population:

    10,208,030

    Population Density per square mile:

    284.2

    Monetary Unit:

    Forint

    Languages:

    Magyar, Hungarian

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Protestant

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Budapest

    Natural Resources:

    bauxite, coal, natural gas

    Major Exports:

    raw materials, chemicals, machinery, fuels, light industry

    Major Imports:

    fuels, raw material, chemicals

    Form of Government:

    Parliamentary democracy Iceland

    Country:

    Iceland

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    39,769 sq. miles

    Population:

    271,033

    Population Density per square mile:

    6.8

    Monetary Unit:

    Krona

    Languages:

    Icelandic

    Religions:

    Evangelical Lutheran, others

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +5

    Capital City:

    Reykjavik

    Natural Resources:

    fish, diatomite, hydroelectric and geothermal power

    Major Exports:

    fish, animal products, aluminum, diatomite, ferrosilicon

    Major Imports:

    petroleum products, machinery, foodstuffs, machinery, textiles

    Form of Government:

    Constitutional Republic Ireland

    Country:

    Ireland

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    27,137 sq. miles

    Population:

    3,619,480

    Population Density per square mile:

    133.4

    Monetary Unit:

    Punt

    Languages:

    English, Gaelic

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Protestant

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +5

    Capital City:

    Dublin

    Natural Resources:

    zinc, lead, natural gas, crude oil, barite, copper, gypsum, silver, limestone

    Major Exports:

    livestock, dairy products, chemicals, machinery, data processing equipment

    Major Imports:

    animal feed, textiles, foodstuffs, petroleum products

    Form of Government:

    Parliamentary Republic Italy

    Country:

    Italy

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    116,500 sq. miles

    Population:

    56,782,748

    Population Density per square mile:

    487.4

    Monetary Unit:

    Lira

    Languages:

    Italian, German, French

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Rome

    Natural Resources:

    mercury, potash, sulfur, fish, gas, marble

    Major Exports:

    textiles, metals, chemicals, clothing, transport equipment

    Major Imports:

    petroleum, metals, foodstuffs, industrial machinery

    Form of Government:

    Republic Liechtenstein

    Country:

    Liechtenstein

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    61 sq. miles

    Population:

    31,717

    Population Density per square mile:

    520

    Monetary Unit:

    Franc

    Languages:

    German

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Protestant

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Vaduz

    Natural Resources:

    hydroelectric power

    Major Exports:

    dental products, stamps, hardware, pottery

    Major Imports:

    machinery, processed foods, metal goods, textiles, motor vehicles

    Form of Government:

    Hereditary Constitution Monarchy Lithuania

    Country:

    Lithuania

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    25,170 sq. miles

    Population:

    3,600,158

    Population Density per square mile:

    143

    Monetary Unit:

    Litas

    Languages:

    Lithuanian, Polish, Russian

    Religions:

    Catholic, others

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +7

    Capital City:

    Vilnius

    Natural Resources:

    peat, quartz, sand and gravel, gypsum, clay, dolomite, limestone, mineral water

    Major Exports:

    textiles, chemical products, mineral products, electrical equipment

    Major Imports:

    petroleum products, machinery, metal

    Form of Government:

    Republic Luxembourg

    Country:

    Luxembourg

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    998 sq. miles

    Population:

    425,017

    Population Density per square mile:

    426

    Monetary Unit:

    Franc

    Languages:

    French, German, Luxembourgish

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Protestant, Jewish

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Luxembourg

    Natural Resources:

    iron ore

    Major Exports:

    steel, chemicals, rubber products

    Major Imports:

    minerals, metals, foodstuffs, consumer goods

    Form of Government:

    Constitutional Monarchy Macedonia

    Country:

    Macedonia

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    9,928 sq. miles

    Population:

    2,009,387

    Population Density per square mile:

    202.4

    Monetary Unit:

    Denar

    Languages:

    Macedonian, Albanian, others

    Religions:

    Eastern Orthodox, Muslim

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Skopje

    Natural Resources:

    chrome, lead, marble, zinc

    Major Exports:

    manufactured goods, machinery, beverages, tobacco products, foodstuffs

    Major Imports:

    fuels, lubricants, machinery, transport equipment

    Form of Government:

    Republic Malta

    Country:

    Malta

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    122 sq. miles

    Population:

    379,563

    Population Density per square mile:

    3,111.2

    Monetary Unit:

    Lira

    Languages:

    Maltese, English

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Valletta

    Natural Resources:

    limestone, salt

    Major Exports:

    clothing, textiles, footwear, ships

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, petroleum, machinery

    Form of Government:

    Parliamentary Democracy Moldova

    Country:

    Moldova

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    13,012 sq. miles

    Population:

    4,457,729

    Population Density per square mile:

    343.6

    Monetary Unit:

    Lem

    Languages:

    Moldovan, Romanian, Russian

    Religions:

    Eastern Orthodox, Jewish

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +8

    Capital City:

    Chisinau

    Natural Resources:

    gypsum, lignites, phosporites

    Major Exports:

    foodstuffs, wine, tobacco, textiles, footwear

    Major Imports:

    oil, gas, coal, foodstuffs, automobiles, consumer goods

    Form of Government:

    Republic Monaco

    Country:

    Monaco

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    1.21 sq. miles

    Population:

    32,035

    Population Density per square mile:

    26,475.2

    Monetary Unit:

    Franc

    Languages:

    French, English, Italian, Monegasque

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Monaco

    Natural Resources:

    None

    Major Exports:

    N/A

    Major Imports:

    N/A

    Form of Government:

    Constitutional Monarchy Norway

    Country:

    Norway

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    125,049 sq. miles

    Population:

    4,419,955

    Population Density per square mile:

    35.3

    Monetary Unit:

    Kroner

    Languages:

    Norwegian, others

    Religions:

    Evangelical Lutheran, Roman Catholic, Protestant

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Oslo

    Natural Resources:

    fish, timber, oil, gas, hydroelectric power

    Major Exports:

    oil, natural gas, fish, ships, pulp and paper, aluminum

    Major Imports:

    machinery, fuels, lubricants, chemicals, foodstuffs

    Form of Government:

    Hereditary Constitutional Monarchy Poland

    Country:

    Poland

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    120,727 sq. miles

    Population:

    38,606,922

    Population Density per square mile:

    318

    Monetary Unit:

    Zloty

    Languages:

    Polish

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Russian Orthodox, Protestant

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Warsaw

    Natural Resources:

    coal, sulfur ,copper, natural gas

    Major Exports:

    coal, machinery, metals, chemicals

    Major Imports:

    machinery, fuels, agricultural products, foodstuffs

    Form of Government:

    Republic Portugal

    Country:

    Portugal

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    35,550 sq. miles

    Population:

    9,927,556

    Population Density per square mile:

    279

    Monetary Unit:

    Escudo

    Languages:

    Portuguese

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +5

    Capital City:

    Lisbon

    Natural Resources:

    fish, cork, tungsten, iron ore

    Major Exports:

    cotton, textiles, cork, wine, fish, timber, resin, machinery

    Major Imports:

    petroleum, machinery, chemicals, agricultural products

    Form of Government:

    Republic Romania

    Country:

    Romania

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    91,700 sq. miles

    Population:

    22,395,848

    Population Density per square mile:

    244

    Monetary Unit:

    Leu

    Languages:

    Romanian, Hungarian, German

    Religions:

    Romanian Orthodox, Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +7

    Capital City:

    Bucharest

    Natural Resources:

    oil, timber, natural gas, coal, iron ore

    Major Exports:

    machinery, metals, chemicals, timber, textiles, foodstuffs

    Major Imports:

    minerals, fuels, machinery, consumer goods

    Form of Government:

    Republic Russia(New)

    Country:

    Russia (New)

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    6,592,800 sq. miles

    Population:

    146,861,022

    Population Density per square mile:

    22.3

    Monetary Unit:

    Ruble

    Languages:

    Russian, Ukrainian, others

    Religions:

    Russian Orthodox, others

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +8

    Capital City:

    Moscow

    Natural Resources:

    oil, natural gas, coal, timber

    Major Exports:

    petroleum and petroleum products, natural gas, wood and wood products, coal, metals, chemicals, military equipment

    Major Imports:

    machinery and equipment, chemicals, consumer goods, grain, meat, metal products

    Form of Government:

    Constitutional Republic (New Constitution adopted 12-12-93) San Marino

    Country:

    San Marino

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    24 sq. miles

    Population:

    24,894

    Population Density per square mile:

    1,037.3

    Monetary Unit:

    Lira

    Languages:

    Italian

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    San Marino

    Natural Resources:

    building stones

    Major Exports:

    lime, chestnuts, wheat, hides, building stones

    Major Imports:

    consumer goods, foodstuffs

    Form of Government:

    Republic Slovakia

    Country:

    Slovakia

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    18,917 sq. miles

    Population:

    5,392,982

    Population Density per square mile:

    285

    Monetary Unit:

    Koruna

    Languages:

    Slovak, Hungarian, others

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Protestant, Orthodox

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Bratislava

    Natural Resources:

    copper, coal, lignite, salt, iron ore, manganese ore

    Major Exports:

    machinery, chemicals, fuels, mineral, metals, agricultural products

    Major Imports:

    transport equipment, fuels, lubricants, manufactured goods

    Form of Government:

    Republic Slovenia

    Country:

    Slovenia

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    7,836 sq. miles

    Population:

    1,971,739

    Population Density per square mile:

    251.6

    Monetary Unit:

    Tolar

    Languages:

    Slovenian, Serbo-Croatian, others

    Religions:

    Catholic, Lutheran, Muslim

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Ljubljana

    Natural Resources:

    coal, lead, zinc, mercury, uranium

    Major Exports:

    manufactured goods, machinery, chemicals, foodstuffs, transport equipment

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, machinery, chemicals, fuels, lubricants

    Form of Government:

    Republic Spain

    Country:

    Spain

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    194,896 sq. miles

    Population:

    39,133,996

    Population Density per square mile:

    201

    Monetary Unit:

    Peseta

    Languages:

    Castilian Spanish, Catalan, Basque

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Madrid

    Natural Resources:

    coal, uranium, hydroelectric power, mercury, iron ore, gypsum, zinc, copper, tungsten

    Major Exports:

    vehicles, machinery, foodstuffs

    Major Imports:

    machinery, chemicals, petroleum, consumer goods, electrical equipment

    Form of Government:

    Constitutional Monarchy Sweden

    Country:

    Sweden

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    173,800 sq. miles

    Population:

    8,886,738

    Population Density per square mile:

    51

    Monetary Unit:

    Krona

    Languages:

    Swedish

    Religions:

    Evangelical Lutheran, Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Stockholm

    Natural Resources:

    forests, iron ore, zinc, uranium, hydroelectric power

    Major Exports:

    machinery, vehicles, wood pulp, chemicals, iron and steel products, petroleum and petroleum products

    Major Imports:

    machinery, clothing, foodstuffs, iron and steel, chemicals, petroleum and petroleum products

    Form of Government:

    Constitutional Monarchy Switzerland

    Country:

    Switzerland

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    15,941 sq. miles

    Population:

    7,260,357

    Population Density per square mile:

    455

    Monetary Unit:

    Franc

    Languages:

    German, French, Italian, Romansch

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Protestant

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Bern

    Natural Resources:

    water power, timber, salt

    Major Exports:

    machinery, precision instruments, textiles, foodstuffs, metal products

    Major Imports:

    transport equipment, foodstuffs, chemicals, construction materials

    Form of Government:

    Federal Republic Ukraine

    Country:

    Ukraine

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    233,089 sq. miles

    Population:

    50,125,108

    Population Density per square mile:

    215

    Monetary Unit:

    Hryvnia

    Languages:

    Ukrainian, Russian

    Religions:

    Orthodox, Ukrianian Catholic, Jewish, Baptist

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +8

    Capital City:

    Kyiv (Kiev)

    Natural Resources:

    iron ore, coal, natural gas, salt, sulfur, timber, kaolin, nickel, magnesium, mercury

    Major Exports:

    coal, electric power, metals, chemicals, machinery, grain, meat

    Major Imports:

    textiles, machinery, chemicals, transportation equipment

    Form of Government:

    Constitutional Republic Vatican City

    Country:

    Vatican City

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    .17 sq. miles

    Population:

    850

    Population Density per square mile:

    5,000

    Monetary Unit:

    Lira

    Languages:

    Italian, Latin

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Vatican City

    Natural Resources:

    N/A

    Major Exports:

    N/A

    Major Imports:

    N/A

    Form of Government:

    N/A Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)

    Country:

    Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)

    Geographic Region:

    Europe

    Land Area:

    39,449 sq. miles

    Population:

    10,526,135

    Population Density per square mile:

    266.8

    Monetary Unit:

    Dinar

    Languages:

    Serbo-Croatian, Albanian

    Religions:

    Orthodox, Muslim, Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +6

    Capital City:

    Belgrade

    Natural Resources:

    oil, gas, coal, copper, antimony

    Major Exports:

    machinery, transportation equipment, chemicals, manufactured goods, animals, foodstuffs.

    Major Imports:

    machinery, fuels, lubricants, foodstuffs, raw materials

    Form of Government:

    Republic Canada

    Country:

    Canada

    Geographic Region:

    North America

    Land Area:

    3,851,809 sq. miles

    Population:

    30,675,398

    Population Density per square mile:

    7.96

    Monetary Unit:

    Canadian Dollar

    Languages:

    English, French

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, United Church, Anglican

    Time Zone (from EST):

    Similar to the United States

    Capital City:

    Ottawa

    Natural Resources:

    nickel, zinc, copper, gold, lead, timber

    Major Exports:

    wood pulp, timber, natural gas, crude petroleum, aluminum

    Major Imports:

    chemicals, computers, consumer goods, motor vehicles

    Form of Government:

    Confederation with Parliamentary Democracy Mexico

    Country:

    Mexico

    Geographic Region:

    North America

    Land Area:

    761,603 sq. miles

    Population:

    98,522,776

    Population Density per square mile:

    129.4

    Monetary Unit:

    New Peso

    Languages:

    Spanish, Mayan, Others

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Protestant

    Time Zone (EST):

    -1

    Capital City:

    Mexico City

    Natural Resources:

    crude oil, silver, copper, gold, lead

    Major Exports:

    crude oil, oil products, coffee, silver, cotton

    Major Imports:

    agricultural equipment, electrical equipment

    Form of Government:

    Federal Republic United States of America

    Country:

    United States of America

    Geographic Region:

    North America

    Land Area:

    3,717,797 sq. miles

    Population:

    270,311,756

    Population Density per square mile:

    7.27

    Monetary Unit:

    Dollar

    Languages:

    English, Spanish, Others

    Religions:

    Protestant, Roman Catholic, Jewish, Others

    Time Zone (from EST):

    depends on area

    Capital City:

    Washington D.C.

    Natural Resources:

    coal, copper, lead, molybdenum, phosphates

    Major Exports:

    capital goods, automobiles, consumer goods, agricultural products

    Major Imports:

    crude oil, machinery, consumer goods, food, refined petroleum

    Form of Government:

    Federal Republic

    Click here for information about the states of the "004f">United States. Australia

    Country:

    Australia

    Geographic Region:

    Australia-New Zealand-Oceania

    Land Area:

    2,967,900 sq. miles

    Population:

    18,613,087

    Population Density per square mile:

    6.27

    Monetary Unit:

    Australian Dollar

    Languages:

    English, aboriginal languages

    Religions:

    Anglican, Roman Catholic, Others

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +15

    Capital City:

    Canberra

    Natural Resources:

    bauxite, coal, iron ore, copper, tin

    Major Exports:

    coal, gold, meat, wool, petroleum

    Major Imports:

    machinery and transport equipment

    Form of Government:

    Democratic, Federal State System Fiji

    Country:

    Fiji

    Geographic Region:

    Australia-New Zealand-Oceania

    Land Area:

    7,054 sq. miles

    Population:

    802,611

    Population Density per square mile:

    113.8

    Monetary Unit:

    Fiji Dollar

    Languages:

    English, Fijian, Hindi

    Religions:

    Christian, Hindu, Muslim

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +17

    Capital City:

    Suva

    Natural Resources:

    timber, fish, gold, copper, offshore oil potential

    Major Exports:

    sugar, clothing, gold, processed fish

    Major Imports:

    machinery and transport equipment, food, consumer goods.

    Form of Government:

    Parliamentary Democracy Kiribati

    Country:

    Kiribati

    Geographic Region:

    Australia-New Zealand-Oceania

    Land Area:

    277 sq. miles

    Population:

    83,976

    Population Density per square mile:

    303

    Monetary Unit:

    Australian Dollar

    Languages:

    English, Gilbertese

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Protestant, Seventh Day Adventist, Mormon, Bahai

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +17

    Capital City:

    Tarawa

    Natural Resources:

    phosphate, fish, seaweed, copra

    Major Exports:

    seaweed, copra, fish

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, machinery

    Form of Government:

    Republic Marshall Islands

    Country:

    Marshall Islands

    Geographic Region:

    Australia-New Zealand-Oceania

    Land Area:

    70 sq. miles

    Population:

    100,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    1,428.5

    Monetary Unit:

    U.S. Dollar

    Languages:

    English, Marshallese, Japanese

    Religions:

    Christian, Protestant

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +17

    Capital City:

    Majuro

    Natural Resources:

    phosphate, marine products, fish, copra

    Major Exports:

    coconut oil, fish, trochus shells

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, machinery, fuels, tobacco

    Form of Government:

    Republic Micronesia

    Country:

    Micronesia

    Geographic Region:

    Australia-New Zealand-Oceania

    Land Area:

    270 sq. miles

    Population:

    129, 658

    Population Density per square mile:

    4,802

    Monetary Unit:

    Dollar

    Languages:

    English, Turkese, Pohnpeian, Yapese, Kosrean

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Protestant

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +16

    Capital City:

    Palikir

    Natural Resources:

    forests, marine products, seabed minerals

    Major Exports:

    fish, clothing, bananas, black pepper

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, consumer goods, machinery, equipment

    Form of Government:

    Republic Nauru

    Country:

    Nauru

    Geographic Region:

    Australia-New Zealand-Oceania

    Land Area:

    8 sq. miles

    Population:

    10,501

    Population Density per square mile:

    1,312.6

    Monetary Unit:

    Australian Dollar

    Languages:

    Nauruan, English

    Religions:

    Christian, Protestant

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +17

    Capital City:

    Yaren

    Natural Resources:

    phosphates

    Major Exports:

    phosphates

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, machinery, fuel

    Form of Government:

    Republic New Zealand

    Country:

    New Zealand

    Geographic Region:

    Australia-New Zealand-Oceania

    Land Area:

    103,700, sq. miles

    Population:

    3,625,388

    Population Density per square mile:

    34.9

    Monetary Unit:

    New Zealand Dollar

    Languages:

    English, Maori

    Religions:

    Anglican, Presbyterian, Roman Catholic, Methodist, Others

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +17

    Capital City:

    Wellington

    Natural Resources:

    natural gas, iron ore, sand, coal, timber

    Major Exports:

    wool, lamb, mutton, beef, fruit, fish

    Major Imports:

    machinery, equipment, petroleum, consumer goods, plastics

    Form of Government:

    Parliamentary Democracy Palau

    Country:

    Palau

    Geographic Region:

    Australia-New Zealand-Oceania

    Land Area:

    177 sq. miles

    Population:

    18,110

    Population Density per square mile:

    102.3

    Monetary Unit:

    Dollar

    Languages:

    English, Palauan

    Religions:

    Christian, Catholic, Seventh Day Adventist, Mormon

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +14

    Capital City:

    Koror

    Natural Resources:

    forests, gold, marine products, seabed minerals

    Major Exports:

    trochus shellfish, tuna, copra

    Major Imports:

    $24.6 million (c.i.f., 1989)

    Form of Government:

    Republic Papua New Guinea

    Country:

    Papua New Guinea

    Geographic Region:

    Australia-New Zealand-Oceania

    Land Area:

    178, 700 sq. miles

    Population:

    4,599,785

    Population Density per square mile:

    25.7

    Monetary Unit:

    Kina

    Languages:

    English, Tok Pisin, Hiri Motu

    Religions:

    Christian

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +15

    Capital City:

    Port Moresby

    Natural Resources:

    copper, gold, silver, timber, natural gas

    Major Exports:

    gold, copper, coffee, palm oil, copra, timber, lobster

    Major Imports:

    food, machinery, fuels, chemicals, consumer goods

    Form of Government:

    Parliamentary Democracy Samoa

    Country:

    Samoa

    Geographic Region:

    Australia-New Zealand-Oceania

    Land Area:

    1,093 sq. miles

    Population:

    224,713

    Population Density per square mile:

    205.6

    Monetary Unit:

    Tala

    Languages:

    Samoan, English

    Religions:

    Christian

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +17

    Capital City:

    Apia

    Natural Resources:

    forests, fish

    Major Exports:

    copra, cocoa, coconut oil, timber

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, manufactured goods, machinery

    Form of Government:

    Constitutional Monarchy Solomon Islands

    Country:

    Solomon Islands

    Geographic Region:

    Australia-New Zealand-Oceania

    Land Area:

    11,500 sq. miles

    Population:

    441,039

    Population Density per square mile:

    38.4

    Monetary Unit:

    Solomon Island Dollar

    Languages:

    English, Papuan, Others

    Religions:

    Anglican, Roman Catholic, Others

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +16

    Capital City:

    Honiara

    Natural Resources:

    fish, timber, gold, bauxite

    Major Exports:

    fish, timber, copra, palm, oil

    Major Imports:

    machinery, foodstuffs, transport equipment

    Form of Government:

    Parliamentary Democracy Tonga

    Country:

    Tonga

    Geographic Region:

    Australia-New Zealand-Oceania

    Land Area:

    289 sq. miles

    Population:

    108,207

    Population Density per square mile:

    374.4

    Monetary Unit:

    Pa'anga

    Languages:

    English, Togan

    Religions:

    Christian, Free Wesleyan

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +18

    Capital City:

    Nuku'alofa

    Natural Resources:

    fish, copra

    Major Exports:

    copra, coconut products, bananas, fruits, fish, vanilla

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, fuels, chemicals, machinery, building material

    Form of Government:

    Constitutional Monarchy Tuvalu

    Country:

    Tuvalu

    Geographic Region:

    Australia-New Zealand-Oceania

    Land Area:

    10 sq. miles

    Population:

    10,444

    Population Density per square mile:

    1,044.4

    Monetary Unit:

    Tuvaluan Dollar

    Languages:

    English, Tuvaluan

    Religions:

    Church of Tuvalu, Protestant

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +17

    Capital City:

    Funafuti

    Natural Resources:

    copra, coconuts

    Major Exports:

    copra

    Major Imports:

    food, fuel, machinery, manufactured goods

    Form of Government:

    Constitutional Monarchy Vanuatu

    Country:

    Vanuatu

    Geographic Region:

    Australia-New Zealand-Oceania

    Land Area:

    5,700 sq. miles

    Population:

    185, 204

    Population Density per square mile:

    32.5

    Monetary Unit:

    Vatu

    Languages:

    French, English, Bislama

    Religions:

    Presbyterian, Roman Catholic, Anglican, others

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +16

    Capital City:

    Port-Vila

    Natural Resources:

    fish, forests

    Major Exports:

    copra, cocoa, coffee, fish, timber, beef

    Major Imports:

    machines, vehicles, foodstuffs, fuel, chemicals

    Form of Government:

    Republic Argentina

    Country:

    Argentina

    Geographic Region:

    South America

    Land Area:

    1,068,298 sq. miles

    Population:

    36,265,463

    Population Density per square mile:

    33.9

    Monetary Unit:

    Peso

    Languages:

    Spanish, Italian, English, German, French

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, Others

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +2

    Capital City:

    Buenos Aries

    Natural Resources:

    lead, zinc, tin, copper, iron ore, petroleum

    Major Exports:

    meat, wheat, corn, oilseed

    Major Imports:

    chemicals, machinery, metals, agricultural equipment

    Form of Government:

    Republic Bolivia

    Country:

    Bolivia

    Geographic Region:

    South America

    Land Area:

    424,162 sq. miles

    Population:

    7,826,352

    Population Density per square mile:

    18.5

    Monetary Unit:

    Boliviano

    Languages:

    Spanish, Quecha, Aymara

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Protestant, Methodist

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +1

    Capital City:

    La Paz (Administrative Capital) Sucre (legal Capital)

    Natural Resources:

    tin, zinc, crude oil, tungsten, natural gas

    Major Exports:

    metals, natural gas

    Major Imports:

    capital goods, chemicals, oil

    Form of Government:

    Republic Brazil

    Country:

    Brazil

    Geographic Region:

    South America

    Land Area:

    3,286,475 sq. miles

    Population:

    169, 806,557

    Population Density per square mile:

    5.2

    Monetary Unit:

    Real

    Languages:

    Portuguese, Spanish, English, French

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +2

    Capital City:

    Brasilia

    Natural Resources:

    bauxite, gold, iron ore, nickel, manganese

    Major Exports:

    iron ore, soybean, footwear

    Major Imports:

    crude oil, capital goods, coal, chemical products

    Form of Government:

    Federal Republic Chile

    Country:

    Chile

    Geographic Region:

    South America

    Land Area:

    292,259 sq. miles

    Population:

    14,787,781

    Population Density per square mile:

    50.6

    Monetary Unit:

    Peso

    Languages:

    Spanish

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Protestant, others

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +1

    Capital City:

    Santiago

    Natural Resources:

    copper, timber, iron ore, nitrates, precious metals

    Major Exports:

    copper, wood products, fish, fruits, seafood

    Major Imports:

    capital goods, raw materials, computers, machinery

    Form of Government:

    Republic Colombia

    Country:

    Colombia

    Geographic Region:

    South America

    Land Area:

    440,000 Square Miles

    Population:

    40,036,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    91

    Monetary Unit:

    Colombian Peso

    Languages:

    Spanish

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Protestant, others

    Time Zone (from EST):

    0

    Capital City:

    Bogot

    Natural Resources:

    coal, petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, nickel, gold, silver, copper, platinum, emeralds, hydroelectric potential

    Major Exports:

    petroleum, coffee, gold, coal, emeralds, bananas, cut flowers

    Major Imports:

    industrial equipment, transportation equipment, consumer products, chemicals, paper products, fuels

    Form of Government:

    Republic Ecuador

    Country:

    Ecuador

    Geographic Region:

    South America

    Land Area:

    106,822 sq. miles

    Population:

    12,336,572

    Population Density per square mile:

    115.5

    Monetary Unit:

    Sucre

    Languages:

    Spanish, Quechua, Jivaroan

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    0

    Capital City:

    Quito

    Natural Resources:

    petroleum, fish, timber

    Major Exports:

    coffee, petroleum, bananas, cocoa products, shrimp

    Major Imports:

    transport equipment, chemicals, machinery

    Form of Government:

    Republic Guyana

    Country:

    Guyana

    Geographic Region:

    South America

    Land Area:

    83,000 sq. miles

    Population:

    707, 954

    Population Density per square mile:

    8.5

    Monetary Unit:

    Guyana Dollar

    Languages:

    English, Amerindian dialects

    Religions:

    Hindu, Protestant, Islam, Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +2

    Capital City:

    Georgetown

    Natural Resources:

    bauxite, diamonds, gold, shrimp, timber

    Major Exports:

    sugar, bauxite, rice, timber, gold

    Major Imports:

    petroleum, foodstuffs, machinery

    Form of Government:

    Republic Paraguay

    Country:

    Paraguay

    Geographic Region:

    South America

    Land Area:

    157,047 sq. miles

    Population:

    5,291,020

    Population Density per square mile:

    33.7

    Monetary Unit:

    Guarani

    Languages:

    Spanish

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +2

    Capital City:

    Asuncion

    Natural Resources:

    iron ore, timber, manganese, limestone

    Major Exports:

    cotton, meat, soybeans, timber, coffee, vegetable oil

    Major Imports:

    fuels, lubricants, tobacco, capital goods

    Form of Government:

    Republic Peru

    Country:

    Peru

    Geographic Region:

    South America

    Land Area:

    496,222 sq. miles

    Population:

    26,111,110

    Population Density per square mile:

    52.6

    Monetary Unit:

    Nuevo Sol

    Languages:

    Spanish, Quechua, Aymara

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    0

    Capital City:

    Lima

    Natural Resources:

    silver, gold, iron, copper, timber, petroleum, fish

    Major Exports:

    copper, fish, sugar, cotton, coffee, silver, lead, zinc, oil

    Major Imports:

    machinery, foodstuffs, chemicals

    Form of Government:

    Republic Suriname

    Country:

    Suriname

    Geographic Region:

    South America

    Land Area:

    63,251 sq. miles

    Population:

    427, 980

    Population Density per square mile:

    6.8

    Monetary Unit:

    Guilder

    Languages:

    Dutch, English, Surinamese

    Religions:

    Protestant, Roman Catholic, Hindu, Islam

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +2

    Capital City:

    Paramaribo

    Natural Resources:

    bauxite, iron ore, timber, fish, shrimp

    Major Exports:

    bauxite, alumina, aluminum, rice, fish, shrimp, bananas

    Major Imports:

    capital equipment, cotton, consumer goods, petroleum

    Form of Government:

    Republic Uruguay

    Country:

    Uruguay

    Geographic Region:

    South America

    Land Area:

    68,037 sq. miles

    Population:

    3,200,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    47

    Monetary Unit:

    Peso

    Languages:

    Spanish

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Protestant, Jewish

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +2

    Capital City:

    Montevideo

    Natural Resources:

    hydroelectric power potential

    Major Exports:

    meat, wool, fish, hides

    Major Imports:

    machinery, vehicles, chemicals, plastics, minerals

    Form of Government:

    Republic Venezuela

    Country:

    Venezuela

    Geographic Region:

    South America

    Land Area:

    352,143 sq. miles

    Population:

    21,800,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    61.9

    Monetary Unit:

    Bolivar

    Languages:

    Spanish, various indigenous languages

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Protestant

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +1

    Capital City:

    Caracas

    Natural Resources:

    petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, hydroelectric power

    Major Exports:

    iron ore, bauxite, petroleum

    Major Imports:

    industrial machinery, chemicals, foodstuffs

    Form of Government:

    Federal Republic Alabama

    Capital:

    Montgomery

    Date organized as territory:

    March 3, 1817

    Date entered Union:

    December 14, 1819 (22nd state)

    State flower:

    Camellia

    State bird:

    Yellowhammer

    Number of counties

    67

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Birmingham

    Land area:

    50,767 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    28th

    Mean Elevation:

    500feet

    Highest Point:

    Cheaha Mountain (2,405 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Gulf of Mexico (sea level) Alaska

    Capital:

    Juneau

    Date organized as territory:

    1912

    Date entered Union:

    January 3, 1959 (49th state)

    State flower:

    Forget-Me-Not

    State bird:

    Willow Ptarmigan

    Number of boroughs

    12 boroughs

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Anchorage

    Land area:

    587,878 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    1st

    Mean Elevation:

    1,900 feet

    Highest Point:

    Mt. McKinley (20,320 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Pacific Ocean (sea level) Arizona

    Capital:

    Phoenix

    Date organized as territory:

    February 24, 1863

    Date entered Union:

    February 14, 1912 (48th state)

    State flower:

    Flower of Saguaro Cactus

    State bird:

    Cactus Wren

    Number of counties

    15

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Phoenix

    Land area:

    114,007 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    6th

    Mean Elevation:

    4,100 feet

    Highest Point:

    Humphrey's Peak (12,633 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Colorado River (70 feet) Arkansas

    Capital:

    Little Rock

    Date organized as territory:

    March 2, 1819

    Date entered Union:

    June 15, 1836 (25th state)

    State flower:

    Apple Blossom

    State bird:

    Mockingbird

    Number of counties

    75

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Little Rock

    Land area:

    52,078 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    27th

    Mean Elevation:

    650 feet

    Highest Point:

    Magazine Mountain (2,753 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Ouachita River (55 feet) California

    Capital:

    Sacramento

    Date organized as territory:

    N/A

    Date entered Union:

    September 9, 1850 (31st state)

    State flower:

    Golden Poppy

    State bird:

    California Valley Quail

    Number of counties

    58

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Los Angeles

    Land area:

    158,648 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    3rd

    Mean Elevation:

    2,900 feet

    Highest Point:

    Mt. Whitney (14,494 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Death Valley (-282 feet) Colorado

    Capital:

    Denver

    Date organized as territory:

    February 28, 1861

    Date entered Union:

    August 1, 1876 (38th state)

    State flower:

    Rocky Mountain Columbine

    State bird:

    Lark Bunting

    Number of counties

    63

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Denver

    Land area:

    104,100 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    8th

    Mean Elevation:

    6,800 feet

    Highest Point:

    Mt. Elbert (14,433 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Arkansas River (3,350 feet) Connecticut

    Capital:

    Hartford

    Date organized as territory:

    N/A

    Date entered Union:

    January 9, 1788 (5th state)

    State flower:

    Mountain Laurel

    State bird:

    American Robin

    Number of counties

    8

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Bridgeport

    Land area:

    5,006 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    48th

    Mean Elevation:

    500 feet

    Highest Point:

    Mt. Frissell, south slope (2,380)

    Lowest Point:

    Long Island Sound (sea level) Delaware

    Capital:

    Dover

    Date organized as territory:

    N/A

    Date entered Union:

    December 7, 1787 (1st state)

    State flower:

    Peach Blossom

    State bird:

    Blue Hen Chicken

    Number of counties

    3

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Wilmington

    Land area:

    2,026 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    49th

    Mean Elevation:

    60 feet

    Highest Point:

    Ebright Rd. Del.- Pa. state line (448 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Atlantic Ocean (sea level) Florida

    Capital:

    Tallahassee

    Date organized as territory:

    March 30, 1822

    Date entered Union:

    March 3, 1845 (27th state)

    State flower:

    Orange Blossom

    State bird:

    Mockingbird

    Number of counties

    67

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Jacksonville

    Land area:

    54,153 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    26th

    Mean Elevation:

    100 feet

    Highest Point:

    Sec 30,T6N,R20W, Walton County (345 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Atlantic Ocean (sea level) Georgia

    Capital:

    Atlanta

    Date organized as territory:

    N/A

    Date entered Union:

    January 2, 1788 (4th state)

    State flower:

    Cherokee Rose

    State bird:

    Brown Thrasher

    Number of counties

    159

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Atlanta

    Land area:

    58,910 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    21st

    Mean Elevation:

    600 feet

    Highest Point:

    Brasstown Bald (4,784 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Atlantic Ocean (sea level) Hawaii

    Capital:

    Honolulu (on Oahu)

    Date organized as territory:

    1900

    Date entered Union:

    August 21, 1959 (50th state)

    State flower:

    Hibiscus

    State bird:

    Nene (Hawaiian Goose)

    Number of counties

    4

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Honolulu

    Land area:

    6,459 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    47th

    Mean Elevation:

    3,030 feet

    Highest Point:

    Puu Wekiu, Mauna Kea (13,796 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Pacific Ocean (sea level) Idaho

    Capital:

    Boise

    Date organized as territory:

    March 3, 1863

    Date entered Union:

    July 3, 1890 (43rd state)

    State flower:

    Syringa

    State bird:

    Mountain Bluebird

    Number of counties

    44

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Boise

    Land area:

    82,412 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    11th

    Mean Elevation:

    5,000 feet

    Highest Point:

    Borah Peak (12,662 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Snake River (710 feet) Illinois

    Capital:

    Springfield

    Date organized as territory:

    February 3, 1809

    Date entered Union:

    December 3, 1818 (21st state)

    State flower:

    Violet

    State bird:

    Cardinal

    Number of counties

    102

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Chicago

    Land area:

    55,645 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    24th

    Mean Elevation:

    600 feet

    Highest Point:

    Charles Mound (1,235 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Mississippi River (279 feet) Indiana

    Capital:

    Indianapolis

    Date organized as territory:

    May 7, 1800

    Date entered Union:

    December 11, 1816 (19th state)

    State flower:

    Peony

    State bird:

    Cardinal

    Number of counties

    92

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Indianapolis

    Land area:

    35,932 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    38th

    Mean Elevation:

    700 feet

    Highest Point:

    Franklin Township, Wayne County (1,257 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Ohio River (320 feet) Iowa

    Capital:

    Des Moines

    Date organized as territory:

    June 12, 1838

    Date entered Union:

    December 28, 1846 (29th state)

    State flower:

    Wild Rose

    State bird:

    Eastern Goldfinch

    Number of counties

    99

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Des Moines

    Land area:

    55,965 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    25th

    Mean Elevation:

    1,100 feet

    Highest Point:

    Sec.29, T100N,R41W, Osceola County (1,670 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Mississippi River (480 feet) Kansas

    Capital:

    Topeka

    Date organized as territory:

    May 30, 1854

    Date entered Union:

    January 29, 1861 (34th state)

    State flower:

    Sunflower

    State bird:

    Western Meadowlark

    Number of counties

    105

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Wichita

    Land area:

    81,778 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    13th

    Mean Elevation:

    2,000 feet

    Highest Point:

    Mt. Sunflower (4,039 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Verdigris River (679 feet) Kentucky

    Capital:

    Frankfort

    Date organized as territory:

    N/A

    Date entered Union:

    June 1, 1792 (15th state)

    State flower:

    Goldenrod

    State bird:

    Kentucky Cardinal

    Number of counties

    120

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Louisville

    Land area:

    39,669 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    37th

    Mean Elevation:

    750 feet

    Highest Point:

    Black Mountain (4,139 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Mississippi River (257 feet) Louisiana

    Capital:

    Baton Rouge

    Date organized as territory:

    March 26, 1804

    Date entered Union:

    April 30, 1812 (18th state)

    State flower:

    Magnolia

    State bird:

    Pelican

    Number of parishes

    64

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    New Orleans

    Land area:

    44,521 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    33rd

    Mean Elevation:

    100 feet

    Highest Point:

    Driskill Mountain (535 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    New Orleans (-8 feet) Maine

    Capital:

    Augusta

    Date organized as territory:

    N/A

    Date entered Union:

    March 15, 1820 (23rd state)

    State flower:

    White Pine Cone & Tassel

    State bird:

    Chickadee

    Number of parishes

    16

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Portland

    Land area:

    30,995 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    39th

    Mean Elevation:

    600 feet

    Highest Point:

    Mt. Katahdin (5,267 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Atlantic Ocean (sea level) Maryland

    Capital:

    Annapolis

    Date organized as territory:

    N/A

    Date entered Union:

    April 28, 1788 (7th state)

    State flower:

    Black-Eyed Susan

    State bird:

    Baltimore Oriole

    Number of parishes

    23

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Baltimore

    Land area:

    10,455 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    42nd

    Mean Elevation:

    350 feet

    Highest Point:

    Backbone Mountain (3,360 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Atlantic Ocean (sea level) Massachusetts

    Capital:

    Boston

    Date organized as territory:

    N/A

    Date entered Union:

    February 6, 1788 (6th state)

    State flower:

    Mayflower

    State bird:

    Chickadee

    Number of counties

    14

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Boston

    Land area:

    8,262 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    45th

    Mean Elevation:

    500 feet

    Highest Point:

    Mt. Greylock (3,487 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Atlantic Ocean (sea level) Michigan

    Capital:

    Lansing

    Date organized as territory:

    January 11, 1805

    Date entered Union:

    January 26, 1837 (26th state)

    State flower:

    Apple Blossom

    State bird:

    Robin

    Number of counties

    83

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Detroit

    Land area:

    56,954 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    22nd

    Mean Elevation:

    900 feet

    Highest Point:

    Mt. Arvon (1,979 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Lake Eire (572 feet) Minnesota

    Capital:

    St. Paul

    Date organized as territory:

    March 3, 1849

    Date entered Union:

    May 11, 1858 (32nd state)

    State flower:

    Showy Lady Slipper

    State bird:

    Common Loon

    Number of counties

    87

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Minneapolis

    Land area:

    79,548 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    14th

    Mean Elevation:

    1,200 feet

    Highest Point:

    Eagle Mountain (2,301 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Lake Superior (600 feet) Mississippi

    Capital:

    Jackson

    Date organized as territory:

    April 7, 1798

    Date entered Union:

    December 10, 1817 (20th state)

    State flower:

    Flower of Magnolia

    State bird:

    Mockingbird

    Number of counties

    82

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Jackson

    Land area:

    47,233 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    31th

    Mean Elevation:

    300 feet

    Highest Point:

    Woodall Mountain (806 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Gulf of Mexico (sea level) Missouri

    Capital:

    Jefferson City

    Date organized as territory:

    June 4, 1812

    Date entered Union:

    August 10, 1821 (24th state)

    State flower:

    Hawthorn

    State bird:

    Bluebird

    Number of counties

    114

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    St. Louis

    Land area:

    68,945 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    18th

    Mean Elevation:

    800 feet

    Highest Point:

    Taum Sauk Mountain (1,772 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    St. Francis River (230 feet) Montana

    Capital:

    Helena

    Date organized as territory:

    May 26, 1864

    Date entered Union:

    November 8, 1889 (41st state)

    State flower:

    Bitterroot

    State bird:

    Western Meadow Lark

    Number of counties

    56

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Billings

    Land area:

    147,047 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    4th

    Mean Elevation:

    3,400 feet

    Highest Point:

    Granite Peak (12,799 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Kootenai River (1,800 feet) Nebraska

    Capital:

    Lincoln

    Date organized as territory:

    May 30, 1854

    Date entered Union:

    March 1, 1867 (37th state)

    State flower:

    Goldenrod

    State bird:

    Meadow Lark

    Number of counties

    93

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Omaha

    Land area:

    76,644 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    15th

    Mean Elevation:

    2,600 feet

    Highest Point:

    Johnson Township (5,424 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Missouri River (840 feet) Nevada

    Capital:

    Carson City

    Date organized as territory:

    March 2, 1861

    Date entered Union:

    October 31, 1864 (36th state)

    State flower:

    Sagebrush

    State bird:

    Mountain Bluebird

    Number of counties

    16

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Las Vegas

    Land area:

    110,567sq. miles

    Order by size:

    7th

    Mean Elevation:

    5,500 feet

    Highest Point:

    Boundary Peak (13,410 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Colorado River (479 feet) New Hampshire

    Capital:

    Concord

    Date organized as territory:

    N/A

    Date entered Union:

    June 21, 1788 (9th state)

    State flower:

    Purple Lilac

    State bird:

    Purple Finch

    Number of counties

    10

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Manchester

    Land area:

    9,283 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    44th

    Mean Elevation:

    1,000 feet

    Highest Point:

    Mt. Washington (6,288 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Atlantic Ocean (sea level) New Jersey

    Capital:

    Trenton

    Date organized as territory:

    N/A

    Date entered Union:

    December 18th, 1787 (3rd state)

    State flower:

    Purple Violet

    State bird:

    Eastern Goldfinch

    Number of counties

    21

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Newark

    Land area:

    7,790 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    46th

    Mean Elevation:

    250 feet

    Highest Point:

    High Point (1,803 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Atlantic Ocean (sea level) New Mexico

    Capital:

    Santa Fe

    Date organized as territory:

    September 9, 1850

    Date entered Union:

    January 6, 1912 (47th state)

    State flower:

    Yucca

    State bird:

    Roadrunner

    Number of counties

    33

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Albuquerque

    Land area:

    121,599 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    5th

    Mean Elevation:

    5,700 feet

    Highest Point:

    Wheeler Peak (13,161 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Red Bluff Reservoir (2,842 feet) New York

    Capital:

    Albany

    Date organized as territory:

    N/A

    Date entered Union:

    July 26, 1788 (11th state)

    State flower:

    Rose

    State bird:

    Bluebird

    Number of counties

    62

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    New York

    Land area:

    47,377 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    30th

    Mean Elevation:

    1,000 feet

    Highest Point:

    Mt. Marcy (5,344 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Atlantic Ocean (sea level) North Carolina

    Capital:

    Raleigh

    Date organized as territory:

    N/A

    Date entered Union:

    November 21, 1789 (12th state)

    State flower:

    Dogwood

    State bird:

    Cardinal

    Number of counties

    100

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Charlotte

    Land area:

    48,843 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    29th

    Mean Elevation:

    700 feet

    Highest Point:

    Mt. Mitchell (6,684 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Atlantic Ocean (sea level) North Dakota

    Capital:

    Bismark

    Date organized as territory:

    March 2, 1861

    Date entered Union:

    November 2,1889 (39th state)

    State flower:

    Wild Prairie Rose

    State bird:

    Western Meadow Lark

    Number of counties

    53

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Fargo

    Land area:

    70,665sq. miles

    Order by size:

    17th

    Mean Elevation:

    1,900 feet

    Highest Point:

    White Butte (3,506 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Red River (750 feet) Ohio

    Capital:

    Columbus

    Date organized as territory:

    N/A

    Date entered Union:

    March 1, 1803 (17th state)

    State flower:

    Scarlet Carnation

    State bird:

    Cardinal

    Number of counties

    88

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Cleveland

    Land area:

    41,004 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    35th

    Mean Elevation:

    850 feet

    Highest Point:

    Cambell Hill (1,549 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Ohio River (455 feet) Oklahoma

    Capital:

    Oklahoma City

    Date organized as territory:

    May 2, 1890

    Date entered Union:

    November 16, 1907 (46th state)

    State flower:

    Mistletoe

    State bird:

    Scissor-tailed Flycatcher

    Number of counties

    77

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Oklahoma City

    Land area:

    68,655 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    19th

    Mean Elevation:

    1,300 feet

    Highest Point:

    Black Mesa (4,973 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Little River (289 feet) Oregon

    Capital:

    Salem

    Date organized as territory:

    August 14, 1848

    Date entered Union:

    February 14, 1859 (33rd state)

    State flower:

    Oregon Grape

    State bird:

    Western Meadow Lark

    Number of counties

    36

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Portland

    Land area:

    97,052 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    10th

    Mean Elevation:

    3,300 feet

    Highest Point:

    Mt. Hood (11,239 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Pacific Ocean (sea level) Pennsylvania

    Capital:

    Harrisburg

    Date organized as territory:

    N/A

    Date entered Union:

    December 12, 1787 (2nd state)

    State flower:

    Mountain Laurel

    State bird:

    Ruffed Grouse

    Number of counties

    67

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Philadelphia

    Land area:

    44,888 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    32nd

    Mean Elevation:

    1,100 feet

    Highest Point:

    Mt. Davis (3,213 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Delaware River (sea level) Rhode Island

    Capital:

    Providence

    Date organized as territory:

    N/A

    Date entered Union:

    May 29, 1790 (13th state)

    State flower:

    Violet

    State bird:

    Rhode Island Red

    Number of counties

    5

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Providence

    Land area:

    1, 213 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    50th

    Mean Elevation:

    200 feet

    Highest Point:

    Jerimoth Hill (812 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Atlantic Ocean (sea level) South Carolina

    Capital:

    Columbia

    Date organized as territory:

    N/A

    Date entered Union:

    May 23, 1788 (8th state)

    State flower:

    Carolina Yellow Jessamine

    State bird:

    Carolina Wren

    Number of counties

    46

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Columbia

    Land area:

    30,203 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    40th

    Mean Elevation:

    350 feet

    Highest Point:

    Sassafras Mountain (3,560 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Atlantic Ocean (sea level) South Dakota

    Capital:

    Pierre

    Date organized as territory:

    March 2, 1861

    Date entered Union:

    November 2, 1889 (40th state)

    State flower:

    American Pasqueflower

    State bird:

    Ring-necked Pheasant

    Number of counties

    67

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Sioux Falls

    Land area:

    75,952 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    16th

    Mean Elevation:

    2,200 feet

    Highest Point:

    Harney Peak (7,242 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Big Stone Lake (966 feet) Tennessee

    Capital:

    Nashville

    Date organized as territory:

    N/A

    Date entered Union:

    June 1, 1796 (16th state)

    State flower:

    Iris

    State bird:

    Mockingbird

    Number of counties

    95

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Memphis

    Land area:

    41,155 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    34th

    Mean Elevation:

    900 feet

    Highest Point:

    Clingmans Dome (6,643 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Mississippi River (178 feet) Texas

    Capital:

    Austin

    Date organized as territory:

    N/A

    Date entered Union:

    December 29, 1845 (28th state)

    State flower:

    Bluebonnet

    State bird:

    Mockingbird

    Number of counties

    254

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Houston

    Land area:

    266,874 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    2nd

    Mean Elevation:

    1,700 feet

    Highest Point:

    Guadalupe Peak (8,749 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Gulf of Mexico (sea level) Utah

    Capital:

    Salt Lake City

    Date organized as territory:

    September 9, 1850

    Date entered Union:

    January 4, 1896 (45th state)

    State flower:

    Sego Lily

    State bird:

    Seagull

    Number of counties

    29

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Salt Lake City

    Land area:

    82,073 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    12th

    Mean Elevation:

    6,100 feet

    Highest Point:

    Kings Peak (13,528 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Beaverdam Wash (2,000) Vermont

    Capital:

    Montpelier

    Date organized as territory:

    N/A

    Date entered Union:

    March 4, 1791 (14th state)

    State flower:

    Red Clover

    State bird:

    Hermit Thrush

    Number of counties

    14

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Burlington

    Land area:

    9,615 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    43rd

    Mean Elevation:

    1,000 feet

    Highest Point:

    Mt. Mansfield (4,393 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Lake Champlain (95 feet) Virginia

    Capital:

    Richmond

    Date organized as territory:

    N/A

    Date entered Union:

    June 25, 1788 (10th state)

    State flower:

    American Dogwood

    State bird:

    Cardinal

    Number of counties

    95

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Norfolk

    Land area:

    39,704 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    36th

    Mean Elevation:

    950 feet

    Highest Point:

    Mt. Rogers (5,729 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Atlantic Ocean (sea level) Washington

    Capital:

    Olympia

    Date organized as territory:

    March 2, 1853

    Date entered Union:

    November 11, 1889 (42nd state)

    State flower:

    Rhododendron

    State bird:

    Willow Goldfinch

    Number of counties

    39

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Seattle

    Land area:

    66,511 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    20th

    Mean Elevation:

    1,700 feet

    Highest Point:

    Mt. Rainier (14,410 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Pacific Ocean (sea level) West Virginia

    Capital:

    Charleston

    Date organized as territory:

    N/A

    Date entered Union:

    June 20, 1863 (35th state)

    State flower:

    Rhododendron

    State bird:

    Cardinal

    Number of counties

    55

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Charleston

    Land area:

    24,231 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    41st

    Mean Elevation:

    1,500 feet

    Highest Point:

    Spruce Knob (4,861 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Potomac River (240 feet) Wisconsin

    Capital:

    Madison

    Date organized as territory:

    July 4, 1836

    Date entered Union:

    May 29, 1848 (30th state)

    State flower:

    Wood Violet

    State bird:

    Robin

    Number of counties

    72

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Milwaukee

    Land area:

    54,426 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    25th

    Mean Elevation:

    1,050 feet

    Highest Point:

    Timms Hill (1,951 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Lake Michigan (579 feet) Wyoming

    Capital:

    Cheyenne

    Date organized as territory:

    May 19, 1869

    Date entered Union:

    July 10, 1890 (44th state)

    State flower:

    Indian Paintbrush

    State bird:

    Meadow Lark

    Number of counties

    23

    Largest city (1980 Census):

    Casper

    Land area:

    97,818 sq. miles

    Order by size:

    9th

    Mean Elevation:

    6,700 feet

    Highest Point:

    Gannett Peak (13,804 feet)

    Lowest Point:

    Belle Fourche River (3,099 feet) Conic Map Projections

    Conic projections show accurate shape, distance, and direction of large specific areas of the earth's surface.

    "0a69"

    Interrupted Map Projections

    Interrupted Projections use pie-shaped interruptions to adjust for ocean distance, while giving accurate data for area and shape of the mapped region.

    "0a6a"

    Mercator Map Projections

    Mercator (cylindrical) maps are primarily intended to show direction. Near the north and south poles, there can exist great discrepancy in actual area and shape of the region.

    "0a6b"

    Polar Map Projections

    Polar (azimuthal) maps are intended to accurately show direction and distance in the hemispheric regions. Near the edges, there can exist great distortion in actual area and shape of the region.

    "0a6c"

    Robinson Map Projections

    Robinson (oval) maps are intended to accurately indicate continental sizes and shapes. Ocean areas are distorted to fill in remaining space and are not accurate.

    "0a6d"

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    At Giza (a suburb of Cairo), the three pyramids called Khufu, Khafra, and Menkaura represent the first of the Ancient Wonders of the World. These pyramids are located near the ancient Sphinx. The first and largest pyramid was built by the Egyptian King of the 4th dynasty, Khufu (also called Cheops), and named it after himself. The pyramid was built in 2700 BC, and was originally 482 feet high with base sides of 755 feet. The pyramid was constructed with over 2,300,000 blocks, each weighing approximately 5,000 pounds.

    The second pyramid (called Khafra), was built by Egyptian King Khafre of the 4th dynasty (son of Cheops). The pyramid was built in the late 26th century BC.

    The third pyramid (called Menkaura), was built by Egyptian King Mycerinus. It was built in the 24th century BC.

    Hanging Gardens of Babylon

    The second Ancient Wonder of the World are the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, and are thought to have been built by King Nebuchadnezzar II. in the year 600 BC. Located 60 miles south of Baghdad, Iraq the terraced gardens range from 75 to 300 feet above the ground and are irrigated by water tanks located on the highest terrace. It is believed the gardens were built by the King to show admiration for his Queen Amuhia.

    Tomb of Mausolus

    The third Ancient Wonder of the World is the Tomb of Mausolus, located at Halicarnassus, an ancient city of Caria in Asia Minor. The tomb was built by Queen Artemisia in 350 BC in memory of her husband, King Mausolus. Some of the remains of this tomb are located in the British Museum. This tomb originated the term "mausoleum".

    Temple of Artemis at Ephesus

    The temple of Artemis at Ephesus is known as the fourth Ancient Wonder of the World. Built circa 350 BC this Ionic temple was built in honor of the goddess Diana. The temple was later destroyed by the invading Goths in 262 AD.

    NOTE: The Ionic columns of the temple stood 60 feet high.

    Colossus of Rhodes

    The fifth Ancient Wonder of the World is the legendary bronze statue of Helios (Apollo) that stood at the entrance to the harbor of Rhodes (located in the Mediterranean Sea near Turkey). The statue took 12 years to finish, and was completed in 280 BC by the sculptor Chares. The statue was destroyed by an earthquake in 224 BC.

    Statue of Zeus at Olympia

    The statue of Zeus, known as the sixth Ancient Wonder of the World, is the work of the Greek sculptor Phidias (circa 430 BC). Built of marble, and inlaid with ivory and gold, this 40 foot high statue of "Zeus at Olympia" has vanished completely. The only images of the once great statue are found on the early coins of that era.

    Pharos of Alexandria

    The seventh Ancient Wonder of the World is the marble lighthouse located in Pharos, a small peninsula in Northern Egypt near Alexandria. The watch tower was decreed by Egyptian King Ptolemy during the 3rd century B.C., and was built by Sostratus of Cnidus. The lighthouse was destroyed in an earthquake in the 13th century AD.

    Pacific Ocean

    Area: sq. miles/ sq. kilometers

    64,000,000/ 165,760,000

    Average depth: feet/ meters

    13,215/ 4,028

    Greatest depth: feet/ meters

    36,198/ 11,033

    Place of greatest depth:

    Mariana Trench

    Deep Trenches

    (in order of greatest depth)

    "0a6e">Mariana Trench

    "0a6f">Tonga Trench

    "0a70">Philippine Trench

    "0a71">Kermadec Trench

    "0a72">Bonin Trench

    "0a73">Kuril Trench

    "0a74">Izu Trench

    "0a75">New Britain

    "0a76">Yap Trench

    "0a77">Japan Trench

    "0a78">Peru-Chile Trench

    "0a79">Palau Trench

    "0a7a">Aleutian Trench

    "0a7b">New Hebrides Trench

    "0a7c">North Ryuku Trench

    "0a7d">Mid America Trench

    Atlantic Ocean

    Area: sq. miles/ sq. kilometers

    31,815,000/ 82,400,000

    Average depth: feet/ meters

    12,880/ 3,926

    Greatest depth: feet/ meters

    30,246/ 9,219

    Place of greatest depth:

    Puerto Rico Trench

    Deep Trenches

    (in order of greatest depth)

    "0a7e"> Puerto Rico Trench

    "0a7f">So Sandwich Trench

    "0a80">Romanche Gap

    "0a81">Cayman Trench

    "0a82">Brazil Basin

    Indian Ocean

    Area: sq. miles/ sq. kilometers

    25,300,000/ 65,526,700

    Average depth: feet/ meters

    13,002/ 3,963

    Greatest depth: feet/ meters

    24,460/ 7,455

    Place of greatest depth:

    Java Trench

    Deep Trenches

    (in order of greatest depth)

    "0a83">Java Trench

    "0a84">Ob' Trench

    "0a85">Damatina Trench

    "0a86">Vema Trench

    "0a87">Agulhas Basin

    Arctic Ocean

    Area: sq. miles/ sq. kilometers

    5,440,200/ 14,090,000

    Average depth: feet/ meters

    3,953/ 1,205

    Greatest depth: feet/ meters

    18,456/ 5,625

    Place of greatest depth:

    77 45'N/ 175 W

    Deep Trenches

    "0a88">Eurasia Basin

    Mediterranean Sea

    Area: sq. miles/ sq. kilometers

    1,145,100/ 2,965,800

    Average depth: feet/ meters

    4,688/ 1,429

    Greatest depth: feet/ meters

    15,197/ 4,632

    Place of greatest depth:

    Off Cape Matapan, Greece

    Deep Trenches

    "0a89">Ionian Basin

    Caribbean Sea

    Area: sq. miles/ sq. kilometers

    1,049,500/ 2,718,200

    Average depth: feet/ meters

    8,685/ 2,647

    Greatest depth: feet/ meters

    22,788/ 6,946

    Place of greatest depth:

    Off Cayman Islands South China Sea

    Area: sq. miles/ sq. kilometers

    895,400/ 2,319,000

    Average depth: feet/ meters

    5,419/ 1,652

    Greatest depth: feet/ meters

    16,456/ 5,016

    Place of greatest depth:

    West of Luzon Bering Sea

    Area: sq. miles/ sq. kilometers

    884,900/ 2,291,900

    Average depth: feet/ meters

    5,075/ 1,547

    Greatest depth: feet/ meters

    15,659/ 4,773

    Place of greatest depth:

    Off Buldir Island Gulf of Mexico

    Area: sq. miles/ sq. kilometers

    615,000/ 1,592,800

    Average depth: feet/ meters

    4,874/ 1,486

    Greatest depth: feet/ meters

    12,425/ 3,787

    Place of greatest depth:

    Sigsbee Deep Okhotsk Sea

    Area: sq. miles/ sq. kilometers

    613,800/ 1,589,700

    Average depth: feet/ meters

    2,749/ 838

    Greatest depth: feet/ meters

    12,001/ 3,658

    Place of greatest depth:

    14610' E; 4650' N East China Sea

    Area: sq. miles/ sq. kilometers

    482,300/ 1,249,200

    Average depth: feet/ meters

    617/ 188

    Greatest depth: feet/ meters

    9,126/ 2,782

    Place of greatest depth:

    25 16'N; 125 E Hudson Bay

    Area: sq. miles/ sq. kilometers

    475,800/ 1,232,300

    Average depth: feet/ meters

    420/ 128

    Greatest depth: feet/ meters

    600/ 183

    Place of greatest depth:

    Near entrance Japan Sea

    Area: sq. miles/ sq. kilometers

    389,100/ 1,07,800

    Average depth: feet/ meters

    4,429/ 1,350

    Greatest depth: feet/ meters

    12,276/ 3,742

    Place of greatest depth:

    Central Basin Andaman Sea

    Area: sq. miles/ sq. kilometers

    308,100/ 797,700

    Average depth: feet/ meters

    2,854/ 870

    Greatest depth: feet/ meters

    12,392/ 3,777

    Place of greatest depth:

    Off Car Nicobar Island North Sea

    Area: sq. miles/ sq. kilometers

    222,100/ 575,200

    Average depth: feet/ meters

    308/ 94

    Greatest depth: feet/ meters

    2,165/ 660

    Place of greatest depth:

    Skagerrak Red Sea

    Area: sq. miles/ sq. kilometers

    169,100/ 438,000

    Average depth: feet/ meters

    1,611/ 491

    Greatest depth: feet/ meters

    7,254/ 2,211

    Place of greatest depth:

    Off Port Sudan Baltic Sea

    Area: sq. miles/ sq. kilometers

    163,000/ 422,200

    Average depth: feet/ meters

    180/ 55

    Greatest depth: feet/ meters

    1,380/ 421

    Place of greatest depth:

    Off Gotland Caspian Sea

    Location:

    Russia, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Iran

    Area: sq. miles

    143,240

    Area: sq. kilometers

    370,922

    Maximum depth: feet

    3,363

    Maximum depth: meters

    1,025

    Elevation: feet

    -92

    Elevation: meters

    -28 Superior

    Location:

    Ontario-Canada, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota-US

    Area: sq. miles

    31,700

    Area: sq. kilometers

    82,103

    Maximum depth: feet

    1,333

    Maximum depth: meters

    406

    Elevation: feet

    600

    Elevation: meters

    183 Victoria

    Location:

    Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania

    Area: sq. miles

    26,820

    Area: sq. kilometers

    69,464

    Maximum depth: feet

    279

    Maximum depth: meters

    85

    Elevation: feet

    3,720

    Elevation: meters

    1,134 Aral Sea

    Location:

    Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan

    Area: sq. miles

    24,904

    Area: sq. kilometers

    64,501

    Maximum depth: feet

    220

    Maximum depth: meters

    67

    Elevation: feet

    174

    Elevation: meters

    53 Huron

    Location:

    Ontario-Canada, Michigan-US

    Area: sq. miles

    23,000

    Area: sq. kilometers

    59,570

    Maximum depth: feet

    750

    Maximum depth: meters

    229

    Elevation: feet

    576

    Elevation: meters

    176 Michigan

    Location:

    Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin-US

    Area: sq. miles

    22,300

    Area: sq. kilometers

    57,757

    Maximum depth: feet

    923

    Maximum depth: meters

    281

    Elevation: feet

    579

    Elevation: meters

    176 Tanganyika

    Location:

    Burundi, Tanzania, Zambia, Zaire

    Area: sq. miles

    12,350

    Area: sq. kilometers

    31,987

    Maximum depth: feet

    4,800

    Maximum depth: meters

    1,463

    Elevation: feet

    2,543

    Elevation: meters

    775 Baikal

    Location:

    Russia

    Area: sq. miles

    12,160

    Area: sq. kilometers

    31,494

    Maximum depth: feet

    5,315

    Maximum depth: meters

    1,620

    Elevation: feet

    1,493

    Elevation: meters

    455 Great Bear

    Location:

    Northwest Territory-Canada

    Area: sq. miles

    12,028

    Area: sq. kilometers

    31,153

    Maximum depth: feet

    1,356

    Maximum depth: meters

    413

    Elevation: feet

    512

    Elevation: meters

    156 Nyasa (Malawi)

    Location:

    Tanzania, Mozambique, Malawi

    Area: sq. miles

    11,150

    Area: sq. kilometers

    28,879

    Maximum depth: feet

    2,280

    Maximum depth: meters

    695

    Elevation: feet

    1,550

    Elevation: meters

    472 Great Slave

    Location:

    Northwest Territory-Canada

    Area: sq. miles

    11,030

    Area: sq. kilometers

    28,568

    Maximum depth: feet

    2,015

    Maximum depth: meters

    614

    Elevation: feet

    513

    Elevation: meters

    156 Erie

    Location:

    Ontario-Canada, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan-US

    Area: sq. miles

    9,910

    Area: sq. kilometers

    25,667

    Maximum depth: feet

    210

    Maximum depth: meters

    64

    Elevation: feet

    570

    Elevation: meters

    174 Winnipeg

    Location:

    Manitoba-Canada

    Area: sq. miles

    9,417

    Area: sq. kilometers

    24,390

    Maximum depth: feet

    92

    Maximum depth: meters

    28

    Elevation: feet

    713

    Elevation: meters

    217 Ontario

    Location:

    Ontario-Canada, New York-US

    Area: sq. miles

    7,540

    Area: sq. kilometers

    19,529

    Maximum depth: feet

    802

    Maximum depth: meters

    244

    Elevation: feet

    245

    Elevation: meters

    75 Balkhash

    Location:

    Kazakhstan

    Area: sq. miles

    7,115

    Area: sq. kilometers

    18,428

    Maximum depth: feet

    87

    Maximum depth: meters

    27

    Elevation: feet

    1,115

    Elevation: meters

    340 Ladoga

    Location:

    Russia

    Area: sq. miles

    6,835

    Area: sq. kilometers

    17,703

    Maximum depth: feet

    755

    Maximum depth: meters

    230

    Elevation: feet

    13

    Elevation: meters

    4 Chad

    Location:

    Chad, Nigeria, Niger

    Area: sq. miles

    6,300

    Area: sq. kilometers

    16,317

    Maximum depth: feet

    24

    Maximum depth: meters

    7

    Elevation: feet

    787

    Elevation: meters

    240 Maracaibo

    Location:

    Venezuala

    Area: sq. miles

    5,200

    Area: sq. kilometers

    13,468

    Maximum depth: feet

    197

    Maximum depth: meters

    60

    Elevation: feet

    Sea level

    Elevation: meters

    Sea level Patos

    Location:

    Brazil

    Area: sq. miles

    3,920

    Area: sq. kilometers

    10,153

    Maximum depth: feet

    15

    Maximum depth: meters

    5

    Elevation: feet

    no information available

    Elevation: meters

    no information available Onega

    Location:

    Russia

    Area: sq. miles

    3,720

    Area: sq. kilometers

    9,635

    Maximum depth: feet

    394

    Maximum depth: meters

    120

    Elevation: feet

    108

    Elevation: meters

    33 Titicaca

    Location:

    Bolivia, Peru

    Area: sq. miles

    3,200

    Area: sq. kilometers

    8,288

    Maximum depth: feet

    990

    Maximum depth: meters

    302

    Elevation: feet

    12,500

    Elevation: meters

    3,810 Nicaragua

    Location:

    Nicaragua

    Area: sq. miles

    3,150

    Area: sq. kilometers

    8,159

    Maximum depth: feet

    230

    Maximum depth: meters

    70

    Elevation: feet

    102

    Elevation: meters

    31 Mia-Ndombe

    Location:

    Zaire

    Area: sq. miles

    3,100

    Area: sq. kilometers

    8,029

    Maximum depth: feet

    36

    Maximum depth: meters

    11

    Elevation: feet

    1,116

    Elevation: meters

    340 Athabasca

    Location:

    Saskatchewan, Alberta-Canada

    Area: sq. miles

    3,064

    Area: sq. kilometers

    7,936

    Maximum depth: feet

    407

    Maximum depth: meters

    124

    Elevation: feet

    700

    Elevation: meters

    213 Eyre

    Location:

    Australia

    Area: sq. miles

    2,970

    Area: sq. kilometers

    7,692

    Maximum depth: feet

    4

    Maximum depth: meters

    1

    Elevation: feet

    -52

    Elevation: meters

    -16 Reindeer

    Location:

    Saskatchewan, Alberta-Canada

    Area: sq. miles

    2,568

    Area: sq. kilometers

    6,651

    Maximum depth: feet

    720

    Maximum depth: meters

    219

    Elevation: feet

    1,106

    Elevation: meters

    337 Tonle Sap

    Location:

    Cambodia

    Area: sq. miles

    2,500

    Area: sq. kilometers

    6,475

    Maximum depth: feet

    39

    Maximum depth: meters

    12

    Elevation: feet

    no information available

    Elevation: meters

    no information available Rudolf

    Location:

    Kenya, Ethiopia

    Area: sq. miles

    2,473

    Area: sq. kilometers

    6,405

    Maximum depth: feet

    720

    Maximum depth: meters

    219

    Elevation: feet

    1,230

    Elevation: meters

    375 Issyk-Kul

    Location:

    Kyrghyzstan

    Area: sq. miles

    2,355

    Area: sq. kilometers

    6,099

    Maximum depth: feet

    2,303

    Maximum depth: meters

    702

    Elevation: feet

    5,279

    Elevation: meters

    1,609 Torrens

    Location:

    Australia

    Area: sq. miles

    2,230

    Area: sq. kilometers

    5,776

    Maximum depth: feet

    0.5

    Maximum depth: meters

    0.2

    Elevation: feet

    92

    Elevation: meters

    28 Albert

    Location:

    Uganda, Zaire

    Area: sq. miles

    2,160

    Area: sq. kilometers

    5,594

    Maximum depth: feet

    168

    Maximum depth: meters

    51

    Elevation: feet

    2,030

    Elevation: meters

    619 Vanern

    Location:

    Sweden

    Area: sq. miles

    2,156

    Area: sq. kilometers

    5,545

    Maximum depth: feet

    325

    Maximum depth: meters

    99

    Elevation: feet

    144

    Elevation: meters

    44 Nettilling

    Location:

    Baffin Island-Canada

    Area: sq. miles

    2,140

    Area: sq. kilometers

    5,543

    Maximum depth: feet

    no information available

    Maximum depth: meters

    no information available

    Elevation: feet

    95

    Elevation: meters

    29 Winnipegosis

    Location:

    Manitoba-Canada

    Area: sq. miles

    2,075

    Area: sq. kilometers

    5,374

    Maximum depth: feet

    39

    Maximum depth: meters

    12

    Elevation: feet

    830

    Elevation: meters

    253 Bangweulu

    Location:

    Zambia

    Area: sq. miles

    1,930

    Area: sq. kilometers

    4,999

    Maximum depth: feet

    5

    Maximum depth: meters

    2

    Elevation: feet

    3,500

    Elevation: meters

    1,067 Nipigon

    Location:

    Ontario-Canada

    Area: sq. miles

    1,872

    Area: sq. kilometers

    4,848

    Maximum depth: feet

    541

    Maximum depth: meters

    165

    Elevation: feet

    1,050

    Elevation: meters

    320 Gairdner

    Location:

    Australia

    Area: sq. miles

    1,840

    Area: sq. kilometers

    4,763

    Maximum depth: feet

    0.5

    Maximum depth: meters

    0.2

    Elevation: feet

    112

    Elevation: meters

    34 Urmia

    Location:

    Iran

    Area: sq. miles

    1,815

    Area: sq. kilometers

    4,701

    Maximum depth: feet

    49

    Maximum depth: meters

    15

    Elevation: feet

    4,180

    Elevation: meters

    1,274 Manitoba

    Location:

    Manitoba-Canada

    Area: sq. miles

    1,800

    Area: sq. kilometers

    4,662

    Maximum depth: feet

    92

    Maximum depth: meters

    28

    Elevation: feet

    813

    Elevation: meters

    248 Kyoga

    Location:

    Uganda

    Area: sq. miles

    1,710

    Area: sq. kilometers

    4,429

    Maximum depth: feet

    26

    Maximum depth: meters

    8

    Elevation: feet

    4

    Elevation: meters

    1 Khanka

    Location:

    China, Russia

    Area: sq. miles

    1,700

    Area: sq. kilometers

    4,403

    Maximum depth: feet

    33

    Maximum depth: meters

    10

    Elevation: feet

    4

    Elevation: meters

    1 Lake of the Woods

    Location:

    Ontario, Manitoba-Canada, Minnesota-US

    Area: sq. miles

    1,695

    Area: sq. kilometers

    4,390

    Maximum depth: feet

    55

    Maximum depth: meters

    17

    Elevation: feet

    1,060

    Elevation: meters

    323 Great Salt

    Location:

    Utah

    Area: sq. miles

    1,680

    Area: sq. kilometers

    4,351

    Maximum depth: feet

    48

    Maximum depth: meters

    15

    Elevation: feet

    4,200

    Elevation: meters

    1,280 Mweru

    Location:

    Zambia, Zaire

    Area: sq. miles

    1,680

    Area: sq. kilometers

    4,351

    Maximum depth: feet

    10

    Maximum depth: meters

    3

    Elevation: feet

    3,008

    Elevation: meters

    917 Peipus

    Location:

    Estonia, Russia

    Area: sq. miles

    1,660

    Area: sq. kilometers

    4,299

    Maximum depth: feet

    41

    Maximum depth: meters

    12

    Elevation: feet

    98

    Elevation: meters

    30 Koko Nor (Tsing Hai)

    Location:

    China

    Area: sq. miles

    1,650

    Area: sq. kilometers

    4,274

    Maximum depth: feet

    125

    Maximum depth: meters

    38

    Elevation: feet

    10,515

    Elevation: meters

    3,205 Dubawnt

    Location:

    Northwest Territory-Canada

    Area: sq. miles

    1,600

    Area: sq. kilometers

    4,144

    Maximum depth: feet

    no information available

    Maximum depth: meters

    no information available

    Elevation: feet

    774

    Elevation: meters

    236 Tung-t'ing-Hu

    Location:

    China

    Area: sq. miles

    1,430

    Area: sq. kilometers

    3,704

    Maximum depth: feet

    no information available

    Maximum depth: meters

    no information available

    Elevation: feet

    36

    Elevation: meters

    11 Van Golu

    Location:

    Turkey

    Area: sq. miles

    1,420

    Area: sq. kilometers

    3,678

    Maximum depth: feet

    82

    Maximum depth: meters

    25

    Elevation: feet

    5,643

    Elevation: meters

    1,720 Tana

    Location:

    Ethiopia

    Area: sq. miles

    1,390

    Area: sq. kilometers

    3,600

    Maximum depth: feet

    30

    Maximum depth: meters

    9

    Elevation: feet

    6,003

    Elevation: meters

    1,830 Table of Richter Numbers <2> 5>

    Richter #

    Desc. of Earthquake

    # per year

    2.0-3.4

    Hardly felt

    800,000

    3.5-4.2

    Barely felt

    30,000

    4.3-4.8

    Felt by most humans

    4,800

    4.9-5.4

    Felt by all

    1,400

    5.5-6.1

    Damaging

    500

    6.2-6.9

    Serious damage

    100

    7.0-7.3

    Very serious damage

    15

    7.4-8.0

    Massive damage

    4

    8.0+

    Near total damage

    1 World Ten Largest Earthquakes <2> 3>

    Place

    Date

    Magnitude

    Chile

    May 22, 1960

    9.5

    Alaska

    March 28, 1964

    9.2

    Russia

    November 4, 1952

    9.0

    Ecuador

    January 3, 1906

    8.8

    Alaska

    March 9. 1957

    8.8

    Kuril Islands

    November 6, 1958

    8.7

    Alaska

    February 4, 1965

    8.7

    India

    August 15, 1950

    8.6

    Argentina

    November 11, 1922

    8.5

    Indonesia

    February 1, 1938

    8.5

    "005d">Richter Scale

    "042d">US Fifteen Largest Earthquakes

    US Fifteen Largest Earthquakes <2> 3>

    Location

    Date

    Magnitude

    Prince William Sound, Alaska

    March 28, 1964

    9.2

    Andreanof Islands, Alaska

    March 9, 1957

    8.8

    Rat Islands, Alaska

    February 4, 1965

    8.7

    East of Shumagin Islands, Alaska

    November 10, 1938

    8.3

    Lituya Bay, Alaska

    July 10,1958

    8.3

    Yakutat Bay, Alaska

    September 10, 1899

    8.2

    Near Cape Yakataga, Alaska

    September 4, 1899

    8.2

    Andreanof Islands, Alaska

    May 7, 1986

    8.0

    New Madrid, Missouri

    February 7, 1812

    7.9

    Fort Tejon, California

    January 9, 1857

    7.9

    Kau District, Hawaii

    April 3, 1868

    7.9

    Kodiak Island, Alaska

    October 9,1900

    7.9

    Gulf of Alaska

    November 30, 1987

    7.9

    Owens Valley, California

    March 26, 1872

    7.8

    Imperial Valley, California

    February 24, 1892

    7.8 Latitude and Longitude of World Cities (page 2) <2> 4>

    City/<1>Country

    Latitude/<1>Longitude

    Mazatlan, Mexico

    2312' N<1>10625' W

    Mecca, Saudi Arabia

    2129' N<1>3945' E

    Melbourne, Australia

    3747' S<1>14458' E

    Mexico City, Mexico

    1926' N<1>997' W

    Milan, Italy

    4527' N<1>910' E

    Montevideo, Uraguay

    3453' S<1>5610' W

    Moscow, Russia

    5545' N<1>3736' E

    Munich, Germany

    488' N<1>1135' E

    Nagasaki, Japan

    3248' N<1>12957' E

    Nagoya, Japan

    357' N<1>13656' E

    Nairobi, Kenya

    125' S<1>3655' E

    Nanjing (Nanking), China

    323' N<1>11853' E

    Naples, Italy

    4050' N<1>1415' E

    Newcastle-on-Tyne, England

    5458' N<1>137' W

    Odessa, Ukraine

    4627' N<1>3048' E

    Osaka, Japan

    3432' N<1>13530' E

    Oslo, Norway

    5957' N<1>1042' E

    Panama City, Panama

    858' N<1>7932' W

    Paramaribo, Suriname

    545' N<1>5515' W

    Paris, France

    4848' N<1>220' E

    Perth, Australia

    3157' S<1>11552' E

    Plymouth, England

    5025' N<1>45' W

    Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea

    925' S<1>1478' E

    Prague, Czech Republic

    505' N<1>1426' E

    Rangoon, Burma

    1650' N<1>960' E

    Reykjavik, Iceland

    644' N<1>2158' W

    Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

    2257' S<1>4312' W

    Rome, Italy

    4154' N<1>1227' E

    Salvador, Brazil

    1256' S<1>3827' W

    Santiago, Chile

    3328' S<1>7045' W

    St. Petersburg, Russia

    5956' N<1>3018' E

    Sao Paulo, Brazil

    2331' S<1>4631' W

    Shanghai, China

    3110' N<1>12128' E

    Singapore, Singapore

    114' N<1>10355' E

    Sofia, Bulgaria

    4240' N<1>2320' E

    Stockholm, Sweden

    5917' N<1>183' E

    Sydney, Australia

    340' S<1>1510' E

    Tananarive, Madagascar

    1850' S<1>4733' E

    Teheran, Iran

    3545' N<1>5145' E

    Tokyo, Japan

    3540' N<1>13945' E

    Tripoli, Libya

    3257' N<1>1312' E

    Venice, Italy

    4526' N<1>1220' E

    Veracruz, Mexico

    1910' N<1>9610' W

    Vienna, Austria

    4814' N<1>1620' E

    Vladivostok, Russia

    4310' N<1>1320' E

    Warsaw, Poland

    5214' N<1>210' E

    Wellington, New Zealand

    4117' S<1>17447' E

    Zrich, Switzerland

    4721' N<1>831' E

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    "005e">Back to Latitude and Longitude of World Cities page 1

    Mid 19th Century: 1801-1820

    1801 June 10, Tripoli declares war on U.S. U.S. naval and land campaigns force Tripoli to accept peace on June 4.

    1803 Supreme Court case "Marbury vs. Madison" is the first time a U.S. law is overturned. U.S. buys the Louisiana Territory from Napoleon. This doubles the U.S. area.

    1804- Louis and Clark are ordered by President Jefferson to explore the Northwest.

    1807- Robert Fulton makes the first practical steamboat trip.

    1808- Slave importation is outlawed.

    1811- Governor William Henry Harrison of Indiana defeats Native Americans in the Battle of Tippecanoe.

    1812- Britain seizes U.S. ships trading with France and results in the War of 1812. U.S. declares war on Britain on June 18.

    1813- Oliver H. Perry defeats British fleet at the Battle of Lake Erie.

    1814 British land at Maryland and burn the Capital and the White House. Francis Scott Key writes the words to the Star Spangled Banner. U.S. wins naval Battle of Lake Champlain and a peace treaty is signed.

    1816- Second Bank of U.S. is chartered.

    1817- Rush-Bagot treaty limits U.S./ British armaments on the Great Lakes.

    1819 American Steamship Savannah makes first steam/sail powered crossing of the Atlantic Ocean. It went from Savannah, Georgia to Liverpool, England and took 29 days. Spain cedes Florida to U.S.

    1820- Henry Clay's Missouri Compromise bill is passed by Congress on May 3, allowing slavery in Missouri but not elsewhere west of the Mississippi River. This was repealed in 1854.

    Mid 19th Century: 1821-1840

    1821- Troy Female Seminary, first women's college, is founded by Emma Willard.

    1823- Monroe Doctrine enunciated on December 2, opposing European intervention in the Americas.

    1824- Pawtucket, Rhode Island weavers strike. It is the first such action by women.

    1825 Erie Canal is opened at a cost of $7 million. First experimental steam locomotive is built and operated by John Stevens.

    1828 December 19, South Carolina declares the right of state nullification of federal laws, opposing the "Tariff of Abominations." Noah Webster publishes the "American Dictionary of the English Language". The first U.S. passenger railroad opens on July 4 (Baltimore and Ohio).

    1830- The Mormon Church is organized by Joseph Smith.

    1831- Virginia slave Nate Turner leads local slave rebellion. Turner is hanged.

    1832 Black Hawk War forces Sauk and Fox Indian Tribes west across the Mississippi. South Carolina passes an Ordinance of Nullification against permanent tariff and threatens to withdraw from the Union.

    1833- Oberlin College is the first college in the U.S. to adopt coeducation.

    1835 Texas proclaims the right to secede from Mexico. Gold is discovered on Cherokee land in Georgia and the Native Americans are forced to cede the lands.

    1836 Mexican forces under the leadership of Santa Anna besiege the Alamo. Texas' independence is declared March 2. Sam Houston defeats the Mexicans at San Jacinto an April 21. Seminole Indians in Florida begin attacks protesting forced removal. After eight years, the Seminole Indians are forced into Oklahoma. Mid 19th Century: 1841-1860

    1841- First emigrant wagon train reaches California on November 4.

    1842 Settlement begins in Oregon via the Oregon Trail. First use of anesthetic in the form of sulfuric ether gas. The U.S.- Canadian border is fixed between Maine and Minnesota on August 9 with the signing of the Webster-Ashburton Treaty.

    1844- Samuel F.B. Morse sends first message via the telegraph on May 24.

    1845- July 4, Texas Congress votes for annexation to the U.S. Texas is admitted to the Union on December 29.

    1846 The Mexican War begins when President James Polk orders General Zachary Taylor to seize disputed Texan lands settled by Mexicans. June 14, Bear Flag of Republic of California is raised at Sonoma. Treaty with Great Britain sets boundary for the Oregon Territory at the 49th parallel. Elias Howe invents the sewing machine. The Mormons leave Nauvoo, IL for the west led by Brigham Young.

    1847 The Mormons settle in Salt Lake City, Utah. First adhesive U.S. postal stamp goes on sale. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow publishes "Evangeline." Ralph Waldo Emerson publishes his first book of poems.

    1848 February, by treaty, Mexico cedes claims to Texas, California, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, and part of Colorado to the U.S. for $15 million. Gold is discovered in California on January 24. Women's Rights Convention is held in Seneca Falls, NY, lead by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott.

    1850 Senator Henry Clay's Compromise of 1850 admits California as the 31st state on September 9. California is a free state. This compromise also made Mew Mexico and Utah territories without a decision on slavery. Slave trade in the District of Columbia ends.

    1851 Nathaniel Hawthorne publishes "House of Seven Gables." Herman Melville publishes "Moby Dick."

    1852- Harriet Beecher Stowe publishes "Uncle Tom's Cabin."

    1853- Commodore Matthew C. Perry U.S.N. negotiates treaty with Japan to open Japan to U.S. ships.

    1854 Republican Party is formed at Ripon, Wisconsin. Henry David Thoreau publishes "Walden."

    1855 First railroad train crosses the Mississippi on the rivers first bridge. Walt Whitman publishes "Leaves of Grass."

    1856 John C. Fremont becomes the Republican Party's first nominee for President. Abolitionist John Brown leads anti-slavery men against Missourians at Osawatomie, Kansas.

    1857- Dred Scott decision by the U.S. Supreme Court held 6-3 that a slave did not become free when taken into a free state. Congress could not bar slavery from a territory and blacks could not become citizens.

    1858 Lincoln-Douglas debates in Illinois. First Atlantic Cable is completed by Cyrus W. Field. It fails on September 1.

    1859 Titusville, Pennsylvania, Edwin L. Drake produces first commercially productive oil well. U.S. armory at Harper's Ferry is seized by abolitionist John Brown. John Brown is later hanged for treason.

    1860 20,000 New England shoe-workers strike, winning higher wages. Abraham Lincoln is elected president. First Pony Express is started between Sacramento, California and St. Joseph, Missouri. Service ends October 24, 1861 when first transcontinental telegraph is completed. Late 19th Century: 1866-1880

    1866 First post of the Grand Army of the Republic is formed. Ku Klux Klan is secretly formed in the south to terrorize blacks who voted. The KKK was disbanded in 1869-71 and later reorganized in 1915. Congress takes control of southern reconstruction.

    1867 Through the efforts of Secretary of State William H. Seward, Alaska is purchased from Russia for $7.2 million. The "Grange" is organized to protect the interests of farmers.

    1868- President Andrew Johnson tries to remove Edwin M. Stanton as Secretary of War. Johnson is tried for violation of the Tenure of Office Act. Acquitted by the Senate, Stanton later resigns.

    1869 Transcontinental Railroad is completed in Promontory, Utah. Territory of Wyoming passes women's suffrage law. New York financial "Black Friday" is caused by an attempt to "corner" gold.

    1871- A fire destroys Chicago in October. Losses are estimated at $196 million.

    1872 Amnesty Act restores civil rights to citizens of the south except for 500 Confederate leaders. Yellowstone, Wyoming becomes the first National Park.

    1873 Banks fail causing panic and beginning a 5-year economic depression. First U.S. postal card is issued. First school of nursing is started at Bellevue Hospital in New York.

    1875 March 1, Congress passes Civil Rights Act allowing equal rights to blacks in public accommodations and jury duty. This act was invalidated by the Supreme Court in 1883. First Kentucky Derby is held.

    1876 Rutherford B. Hayes (Republican) is elected to president over Samuel J. Tilden (Democrat) after Congress decides on 22 disputed electoral votes. Mark Twain publishes "Tom Sawyer." General George Custer and 264 men of the 7th Cavalry are killed at the Battle of Little Big Horn, Montana during the Sioux Indian War.

    1877- Irish terrorist society called the Molly Maguires in Scranton, Pennsylvania is broken up by hanging eleven of its leaders for the murder of police and mining officials.

    1878- First commercial telephone exchange is opened in New Haven, Connecticut.

    1879 Henry George publishes "Progress and Poverty" advocating a single tax on the land. First F.W. Woolworth is opened in Utica, New York. Late 19th Century: 1881-1899

    1881 President James A. Garfield is assassinated in Washington D.C. Booker T. Washington founds the Tuskegee Institute for black study.

    1883 January 16, The Pendleton Act is passed to reform federal civil service. Brooklyn Bridge is opened.

    1886 American Federation of Labor (AFL) is formed. Apache Indian Geronimo surrenders. Haymarket riots in Chicago over a bitter labor battle for eight-hour workdays; seven police and four workers died.

    1888- Great blizzard in the eastern U.S. kills 400 people.

    1889- Flood in Johnstown, Pennsylvania kills 2,200 people.

    1890 First execution by electrocution takes place in Auburn Prison, Auburn, New York. Battle of Wounded Knee, South Dakota; the last major conflict between Native Americans and U.S. troops. Ellis Island is opened as an immigration depot. Sherman Antitrust Act begins effort to control monopolies.

    1892- Strike at Carnegie Steel Mills in Homestead, Pennsylvania results in eighteen deaths.

    1893- Financial panic leads to a four-year depression.

    1894- First public showing of Thomas Edison's Kinetoscope (motion pictures) invented earlier in 1887.

    1896 Supreme Court in Plessy vs. Ferguson approves racial segregation under the "separate but equal" doctrine. William Jennings Bryan delivers the "Cross of Gold" speech in opposition of the gold standard.

    1898 U.S. battleship Maine is destroyed at Havana, Cuba, killing 260. U.S. declares war with Spain. December 10, Spain cedes Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam to the U.S., as well as granting independence to Cuba.

    1899 U.S. declares Open Door Policy to make China an open international market and to preserve its integrity as a nation. John Dewey publishes "School and Society" to promote progressive education. Mid 20th Century/ Vietnam Era: 1953-1960

    1953- President Eisenhower announces that the U.S. had given $60 million to France for the Indochina War.

    1954 Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) is formed. First atomic powered submarine (the Nautilus) is launched. Senator Joseph McCarthy alleges Communist influence in the Army. Racial segregation in public schools is ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.

    1955 U.S. Supreme Court orders "all deliberate speed" in integration of public schools. U.S. agrees to help train South Vietnamese Army. Bus segregation is ruled unconstitutional by a federal court after a boycott and NAACP protest. American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations merge to form the AFL-CIO.

    1956 Interstate highway system is inaugurated by the Federal Aid Highway Act. First transatlantic telephone cable goes into operation. 101 Southern Congressmen mount a massive resistance to the Supreme Courts desegregation ruling.

    1957 First civil rights bill to protect the voting rights of blacks is passed by Congress. National Guardsmen are called out to ban blacks from entering an all white high school in Little Rock, Arkansas. Jack Kerouac publishes "On the Road."

    1958 Five thousand U.S. Marines are sent to Lebanon to protect the elected government from overthrow. First U.S. earth satellite (Explorer I) is put into orbit, discovering the Van Allen radiation belt. National Airlines begins first domestic jet airline passenger service in the U.S.

    1959 St. Lawrence Seaway is opened. Alaska becomes the 49th state. The world's first atomic powered merchant ship (N.S. Savannah) is launched. First U.S. ballistic submarine (The George Washington) is launched. Soviet Premiere Khrushchev makes unprecedented visit to the U.S.

    1960 U.S. launches first weather satellite, the Tiros. Sit-ins begin when four black college students refuse to move from a Woolworth lunch counter when denied service in Greensboro, North Carolina. Mobs attack U.S. embassy in Panama. U-2 reconnaissance plane is shot down over the Soviet Union. U.S. backs rightist groups in Laos. Mid 20th Century/ Vietnam Era: 1961-65

    1961 U.S. severs relations with Cuba."Bay of Pigs" invasion of Cuba by U.S. trained and backed Cuban exiles.First manned sub-orbital flight by U.S. Commander Alan B. Shepherd Jr. in a Mercury capsule.

    1962 Lt. Colonel John H. Glenn Jr. becomes the first American in orbit, circling the earth 3 times in the "Friendship 7".President Kennedy orders U.S. military advisors in Vietnam to fire if fired upon.First U.S. communications satellite is launched.Offensive missile build-up in Cuba leads to Naval and Air blockade of Cuba.Kennedy and Khrushchev reach an agreement to end the Cuba missile crisis- the missile bases are dismantled.Rachel Carson publishes "Silent Spring," which ushers in the environmental movement.

    1963 Supreme Court rules that laws requiring recitation of the "Lord's Prayer" or other Bible verses in public schools are unconstitutional.Britain, U.S.S.R., and United States agree on a limited nuclear test ban allowing only underground tests.South Vietnam President Ngo Dinh Diem is assassinated.President John F. Kennedy is assassinated in Dallas, Texas.There are 15,000 troops in South Vietnam.

    1964 Panama suspends relations with U.S.U.S. sends military planes to Laos.Supreme Court orders that Congressional districts have equal populations.Omnibus Civil Rights Bill passes, banning discrimination in jobs, voting, public accommodations, etc.Congress passes Tonkin Resolution authorizing presidential action in Vietnam.Warren Commission releases a report concluding Lee Harvey Oswald was solely responsible for the Kennedy assassination.

    1965 President Johnson orders continuous bombing of North Vietnam below the 20th parallel.U.S. sends 14,000 troops to Dominican Republic during civil war.New Voting Rights Act is signed.Race riots in Watts (Los Angeles) result in 34 deaths.Water Quality Act is passed.U.S. forces in Vietnam reach 184,300. Mid 20th Century/ Vietnam Era: 1966-70

    1966 Medicare Program begins. U.S. forces begin firing into Cambodia. U.S. begins bombing Hanoi, North Vietnam. Edward Brooke (R- Massachusetts) is elected. He is the first black U.S. senator in 85 years.

    1967 President Johnson and Soviet Premier Aleksei Kosygin agree not to let any crisis push them into war. Black riots in Newark, New Jersey result in 26 deaths. Riots in Detroit, Michigan result in 40 deaths, 2,000 injured. First black U.S. Supreme Court Justice, Thurgood Marshall, is sworn into office. 475,000 U.S. troops in Vietnam.

    1968 Naval ship, U.S.S. Pueblo, is seized by North Korean forces in the Sea of Japan. Martin Luther King is assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee. Senator Robert Kennedy is assassinated in Los Angeles. "Tet Offensive." Communist troops attack Saigon. Shirley Chisholm becomes the first black woman elected to Congress (D- New York).

    1969 Vietnam peace talks begin. Neil Armstrong becomes the first man to set foot on the moon. 250,000 Anti-Vietnam war demonstrators march on Washington, D.C. Senator Edward Kennedy drives off a bridge at Chappaquiddick Island, Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts. His secretary is found drowned in the car.

    1970 First Earth Day is celebrated on April 22. Postal reform measure is signed creating an independent U.S. Postal Service. President Nixon names two women U.S. Generals as the first in U.S. history. National Guardsmen kill 4 students at Kent State University in Ohio during anti-war demonstrations. Mid 20th Century/ Vietnam Era: 1971-75

    1971 Constitutional Amendment lowers the voting age to 18. Charles Manson and three followers are found guilty of murder. Lt. William L. Calley is found guilty of the murder of 22 Vietnamese in Lylai and is sentenced to 20 years in prison. New York Times and Washington Post publish classified Pentagon papers about U.S. involvement in Vietnam. Supreme Court upholds the right of the newspapers to publish the papers under the First Amendment.

    1972 President Nixon makes unprecedented trip to China. Senate approves Constitutional Amendment banning discrimination of women because of their sex. Alabama Governor George C. Wallace is shot and seriously wounded at Laurel, Maryland. President Nixon becomes the first U.S. president to visit Moscow; this visit resulted in a landmark strategic arms pact. Five men are arrested for breaking into the offices of the Democratic National Committee, Watergate Office Complex, Washington, DC. August 11, last U.S. troops leave Vietnam.

    1973 Five of seven Watergate defendants plead guilty; the other two are convicted. Supreme Court rules that a state may not prevent a woman from having an abortion during the first six months of pregnancy. Vietnam peace pacts are signed in Paris. Vice President Spiro T. Agnew resigns after charges of tax evasion. January 27 ends the military draft. Arab oil-producing nations ban oil exports to the U.S. The ban was lifted March 18,1974.

    1974 House Judiciary Committee opens impeachment hearings against President Nixon. U.S. Supreme Court orders Nixon to turn over 64 White House tapes to special prosecutor Leon Jaworski. August 9, Nixon resigns as President of the Unites States. President Gerald Ford issues an unconditional pardon to ex-president Nixon.

    1975 Attorney General John Mitchell, H.R. Halderman and John Ehrlichman are found guilty on Watergate cover-up charges. April 29, U.S. civilians are evacuated from Saigon. Cambodian forces seize U.S. merchant ship Mayaguez in the Gulf of Siam. FBI agents capture Patty Hearst for bank robbery. Late 20th Century America: 1976-1980

    1976 U.S. celebrates its Bicentennial marking 200 years of independence. Mysterious "legionnaires disease" kills 29 in Philadelphia. U.S. lands two space probes on Mars, Viking I and Viking II.

    1977 President Carter signs an act creating a new cabinet level, Energy Department. President Carter pardons most Vietnam War draft evaders.

    1978 Senator Hubert Humphrey dies of cancer after 32 years of public service. Senate votes to turn Panama Canal over to Panama. California voters approve Proposition 13 to cut property taxes in the state by 57%. Humphrey-Hawkins Bill passes Congress, aimed at reducing unemployment to 4% and inflation to 3% by 1983.

    1979 Major nuclear reactor accident on Three Mile Island, Pennsylvania. Pope John Paul II visits U.S. Worst U.S. aviation disaster; 275 die in American Airlines jetliner crash in Chicago. Federal government announces a $1.5 billion loan guarantee to Chrysler Corporation. 63 Americans are taken hostage at the American Embassy in Teheran, Iran.

    1980 January 4, U.S. takes punitive measures against USSR for its invasion of Afghanistan. President Carter initiates a grain and high technology embargo against the Soviets and boycotts the Olympic games in Moscow. May 18, Mount St. Helen's erupts in Washington State. November 4, Ronald Reagan is elected as 40th President of the United States. Former Beatle John Lennon is shot and killed in New York City. Late 20th Century America: 1981-1985

    1981 After 444 days of captivity, U.S. hostages are released from Iran. Attempted assassination of President Ronald Reagan by John W. Hinkley, Jr. U.S. launches first Space Shuttle, Columbia. Congress passes Reagan's tax-cut legislation designed to be the largest tax cut bill in U.S. history. President Reagan fires striking Air Traffic Controllers when they defy a back-to-work order. Sandra Day O'Connor becomes the first female member of the U.S. Supreme Court. President Reagan orders sanctions against the new Polish military government.

    1982 AT&T is ordered to give up 22 Bell System companies as a result of a 13-year-old lawsuit by the Justice Department. Senate votes to eliminate busing for the purpose of racial integration. Highest unemployment rate since 1940 at 10.8% (over 11 million people). Equal Rights Amendment is defeated after a 10-year fight for ratification. First operational flight of the space shuttle Columbia. First artificial heart, designed by Dr. Robert Jarvick, is implanted into patient Barney Clark.

    1983 President Reagan signs bill to rescue Social Security System from bankruptcy. Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) agrees to cut prices of crude oil for the first time in its 23-year history. National Committee on Excellence in Education concluded that U.S. elementary and secondary education is "mediocre" and should put greater emphasis on Math, English, Computer Science, and Social Studies. Sally Ride becomes the first American woman in space. Soviet Union shoots down a South Korean airliner, killing 269 people for allegedly violating Soviet air space. 241 Americans are killed in a terrorist bombing in Lebanon. U.S. military forces invade the island of Grenada to free captive U.S. citizens.

    1984 President Reagan visits China for the first time to meet with Chinese leaders. Space Shuttle Challenger makes its 4th trip into space. U.S. Senate rejects two Constitutional amendments that would allow prayer in public schools. Soviet Leader Yuri Andropov dies after a long illness in Moscow. Prime Minister Indira Gandhi of India is assassinated by her own bodyguards.

    1985 February 16, Israeli troops withdraw from the Sidon area of Lebanon. Mikhail Gorbachev succeeds Konstantin Chernenko as the new party secretary in the Soviet Union. June 14, Shiite Muslim extremists seize an airplane flying from Athens to Rome. One American is killed and 39 are kept as hostages. Seventeen-hour rock concert called "Live Aide" is held to raise money for people starving in Africa. Members of the Palestine Liberation Front hijack the Italian cruise ship "Achille Lauro" off the coast of Egypt. One American is killed. Arab terrorists seize an Egyptian jetliner en route to Cairo, 60 people are killed. Congress passes the Gramm-Rudman bill in an attempt to reduce the huge federal deficit. President Reagan signs the bill December 12. U.S. Senate votes to impose economic sanctions against South Africa to protest its apartheid policy. Palestinian terrorists kill 20 people in airports at Vienna and Rome. General Electric Corporation buys RCA for $6.28 billion, making it the biggest corporate merger outside of the oil industry. Late 20th Century America: 1986-90

    1986 Space Shuttle Challenger explodes during launch, killing 6 astronauts. Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos goes into exile in the Hawaiian Islands after 20 years of rule. U.S. war planes strike targets in Tripoli and Benghazi, Libya. U.S. freezes all Libyan government assets. Major nuclear accident kills 23 and requires the evacuation of 40,000 at Chernobyl, Ukraine nuclear power plant. U.S. government issues a warning about the spread of AIDS forecasting a tenfold increase in the next five years. Anatoly Schcharansky, Soviet dissident, is freed after 8 years in prison. U.S. Supreme Court finds a key element of the Gramm-Rudman "balanced budget" law to be unconstitutional. Martin Luther King Day is observed officially for the first time. Congress passes a comprehensive tax reform law to simplify the tax system. U.S.S.R. and U.S. reach a tentative agreement on a worldwide ban of medium-range missiles. U.S. Senate confirms President Reagan's nomination of William Rehnquist as Chief Justice and A. Scalia as Associate Justice of the Supreme Court. Reports indicate that the U.S. sold arms to Iran and diverted profits to Nicaraguan contras. This turns out to be the worst crisis of the Reagan Administration. On Wall Street, Ivan Boesky agrees to plead guilty to unspecified criminal counts and is ordered to pay a $100 million fine and return profits.

    1987 January 8, the DOW closes at 2002.25, its first finish above 2000. President Reagan produces the first trillion-dollar government budget. U.S.S.R. General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev proposes new social and economic reforms in an era referred to as "glasnost" (openness). Soviets pass a law calling for "a radical reorganization of economic management." Iraqui war plane fires on the frigate USS Stark in the Persian Gulf, killing 37 sailors. British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher wins a third consecutive term as Prime Minister of Great Britain. Senate and House Committees hold public hearings on the Iran-Contra affair. President Reagan meets with the presidents of El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Honduras, and Guatemala to discuss plans for peace in the region. CIA Director William Casey dies. October 19, Wall Street crashes. Dow plummets a record 508 points. Supreme Court nominee Robert Bork is rejected by the Senate. Deng Xiaoping steps down as China's top leader. President Reagan meets with Soviet leader Gorbachev and they together agree to dismantle all 1,752 U.S. and 859 Soviet missiles with ranges up to 3,400 miles.

    1988 Federal Grand juries in Florida return indictments against General Manuel Noriega (Panama) charging him with assisting the Medellin drug cartel in smuggling cocaine into the U.S. Afghanistan and Pakistan sign agreements providing for the withdrawal of Soviet troops. U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service initiates an amnesty program for illegal aliens. Almost 1.4 million illegal aliens met the May 4 deadline. Congress approves a Medicare expansion protecting the disabled and elderly against "catastrophic" medical costs. NASA scientist James Hansen testifies to Congress that a global warming process is taking place, a "Greenhouse Effect" that may eventually present significant ecological problems. U.S. Navy warship Vincennes shoots down a commercial Iranian jetliner in the Persian Gulf killing all 290 on board. July 1, Soviet Communist Party declares support for perestroika (restructuring). Iran accepts a United Nations proposal to end the war with Iraq; cease-fire begins August 20. October 1, Supreme Soviet unanimously confirms Mikhail Gorbachev as President. George Bush is elected 41st President of the United States.

    1989 March 24, Exxon oil tanker "Valdez" spills 11 million gallons of oil into Alaska's Prince William Sound. August 9, Army General Colin R. Powell becomes the first black Chairman of Joint Chief of Staff. October 18, the Galileo spacecraft is launched from the space shuttle Atlantis for its trip to Jupiter. December 20, U.S. troops invade Panama in an attempt to capture General Manuel Noriega.

    1990 Hubble telescope is launched from the space shuttle Discovery on April 24. U.S. plays a major role in the Persian Gulf crisis, leading to the liberation of Kuwait form Iraqi control. Late 20th Century America: 1991-98

    1991 U.S. Postal Service approves a 29-cent stamp.Baseball player Pete Rose is barred from baseball's Hall of Fame.March 15, full diplomatic relations are reinstated with Albania after 52 years on non-recognition.Environmental Protection Agency reports the ozone loss in the upper atmosphere is twice as great as earlier reports indicated.President Bush grants $1.5 billion in credit to the Soviet Union for additional food purchases.September 13, Federal Reserve cuts interest rates from 5.5% to 5%.U.S. agrees to pull all military forces out of the Philippines by 1994.Federal Judge approves a $1 billion suit against Exxon for the Valdez oil spill in Alaska.

    1992 Bill Clinton, Democrat, is elected 42nd President, defeating George Bush.Bush and Yeltsin announce a formal end to the Cold War.U.S. lifts trade sanctions against China.U.S. forces leave the Philippines after nearly a century of American military presence.U.S. becomes the only industrial nation to not sign the bio-diversity treaty aimed at the preservation of animal, plant, and microbial species.U.S. and Russia agree on nuclear arms reduction treaty.

    1993 120 nations, along with the U.S. and Russia, agree to ban production, stockpiling, and use of chemical weapons, and to destroy existing stock within 10 years.Car bomb explodes at New York's World Trade Center killing seven and injuring close to 1,000.104 people die in "the worst storm of the century" to hit the Northeast and mid-Atlantic states according to the National Weather Service.House of Representatives approves North American Free Trade Agreement.President Clinton signs the Brady bill requiring a five-day waiting period for gun purchases.Pentagon allows gays and lesbians to serve in the military.

    1994 Four people found guilty in the 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center and each receive 240 years in prison.The U.S. dollar drops below 100 Japanese yen.Republican Party wins majorities in both houses of Congress for the first time in 40 years.Clinton signs a crime bill outlawing semi-automatic weapons.U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics announces that the U.S. now has the highest incarceration rate in the world.Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis dies of cancer.U.S. sends military forces to Persian Gulf.According to the Census Bureau, the number of U.S. farms drops below 2 million for the first time since the Civil War.A small plane crashes into the White House killing the pilot.

    1995 Republicans take control of Congress.Terrorist car bomb blows up the Oklahoma City Federal Building killing 169 people, including 15 children in the building's day care center.Clinton announces full diplomatic recognition of Vietnam.U.S. space shuttle docks with Russian space station.Senate rejects balanced-budget amendment.Clinton sends 20,000 troops to Bosnia.Congressional Accountability Act is signed by Clinton ending Congress' exemption from laws against workplace discrimination and harassment.Supreme Court rules that neither the Congress nor the states can impose term limits on Congressional office without a Constitutional amendment.

    1996 Clinton signs line item veto bill.Truck bomb in Saudi Arabia kills 19 people at U.S. military base.Clinton defeats Bob Dole and wins presidential re-election.Clinton signs the Defense of Marriage Act denying federal recognition of same sex marriage.Pipe bomb kills one woman at Atlanta's Centennial Olympic Park.The Hubble Space Telescope takes the first ever pictures of the planet Pluto.Clinton announces a plan to balance the budget within seven years.Senate ratifies major arms reduction treaty.A bill to raise the country's minimum wage is signed by Clinton.Madeline Albright becomes the first female Secretary of State.Congress passes welfare reform bill.

    1997 Newt Gingrich is re-elected as House Speaker and is later found guilty of ethics violations.Unemployment drops below 5% for the first time in 24 years.Comet Hale-Bopp is visible from March to May.Hubble Space Telescope reveals a star 10 million times brighter than our sun.Deep Blue (an IBM computer) defeats world chess champion Gary Kasparov.Tobacco industry agrees to pay nearly $369 billion dollars over 25 years to compensate states for the cost of smoking related illnesses.Republican leaders and Clinton agree on a plan to balance the budget by 2002.U.S. sends its first ambassador to Vietnam in 22 years.U.S. Appeals Court upholds California's ban on affirmative action.NASA launches a plutonium-powered space probe.

    1998 Clinton proposes an expansion of Medicare.Clinton proposes to spend $21 billion in tax breaks and grants for childcare.NASA announces 77 year-old U.S. Senator John Glenn (former astronaut) will return to space in a shuttle flight.Lunar Prospect spacecraft finds water on the moon.Texas executes first woman in that state since the Civil War.U.S. military jet cuts a ski lift cable in Italy killing 20 people.Senate votes to include Poland, Hungary, and the Czech republic into NATO.Carlsbad, New Mexico becomes the world's first deep underground nuclear storage site.Senate votes 97-0 to overhaul the Internal Revenue Service (IRS).Clinton signs a 10-year extension on the moratorium against oil drilling off U.S. coastlines.Hubble Space Telescope produces pictures of a planet outside out solar system.U.S. Embassies in Kenya and Tanzania are blasted by terrorist bombs killing 190 people and wounding nearly 5,000.Government fiscal year ends with a surplus of nearly $70 billion dollars, the largest on record and the first since 1969. Important Treaties, Acts and Doctrines (A-G)

    Adams /Onis Treaty (1819) This treaty between the U.S. and Spain gave the territory of Florida to the U.S.

    Adamson Act (1916) Provided for an eight-hour day for workers on interstate railroads.

    Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) Provided benefits to orphans, elderly, and people injured in industrial accidents. This act was part of President Franklin Roosevelt's "New Deal" to help the country's economy out of the Great Depression.

    Air Commerce Act (1926) Congress passes a law giving the Commerce Department control over licensing pilots and aircraft.

    Americans with Disabilities Act (1992) Legislation that ensures that people with disabilities are not discriminated against.

    Bland / Allison Act (1878) A compromise between the free-silverites who wanted unlimited coinage of silver and conservatives who wanted to keep a strict gold standard. It allowed the government to purchase between 2 - 4 million dollars worth of silver each month for coinage and fixed the rate of silver at 1/16 the value of gold.

    Chinese Exclusion Acts (1882) Due to arguments that insisted Chinese labor took away American jobs, and growing violence against Chinese nationalists, the President signed a law that prohibited further Chinese immigration and naturalization for 10 years. The Chinese Exclusion Acts were passed in 1882, 1892, and 1902. The first act prohibited Chinese immigration to the U.S. for ten years. The second act renewed the prohibition for another ten years. In 1902 the Act was passed for an indefinite period of time and wasn't changed until World War II when China was a U.S. ally.

    Civil Rights Act (1964) One of several Civil Rights acts passed in the U.S., the Civil Rights of 1964 was big step forward in ensuring civil rights to African-Americans. It prohibited discrimination in employment and established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. This important legislation also banned discrimination in public accommodations connected with interstate commerce, including restaurants, hotels, and theaters. It also paved the way for the Civil Rights Act of 1968 that banned discrimination in housing and real estate.

    Civil Rights Act (1875) These were civil rights laws passed to end the "Jim Crow" laws of the Southern States which legalized segregation.

    Civil Rights Act (1866) This act stated that all persons born in the United States are citizens of the United States.

    Clayton / Bulwer Treaty (1850) An agreement between the U.S. and Britain that would guarantee the neutrality of any canal built in central America and would limit any U.S. and British attempts to gain colonies in Central America.

    Clayton Antitrust Act (1914) This was passed as a revision of the Sherman Antitrust Act which many felt to be weak. It is more specific and includes prohibition of price discrimination, charging different prices, or providing unequal services to different customers. It also prohibits exclusive agreements among businesspeople where the effect may prove anticompetitive. This act established the Federal Trade Commission.

    Clean Air Act (1970) This Act established air quality standards for six major pollutants: particulate matter, sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, and photochemical oxidants. Now, each state is required to develop plans to implement and maintain these standards.

    Congressional Reconstruction Acts (1867) These acts required states to ratify the fourteenth amendment in order to be readmitted to the Union. Tennessee was the first and only southern state immediately readmitted. The other ten states were divided into five military districts with military governors. To be readmitted to the Union, states had to register all qualified voters, which included all black males and any whites who had not joined the rebellion. After registering all voters, the states would write a constitution and hold elections. If Congress approved the constitution, the state could reenter the Union.

    Embargo Act (1807) This act was the American response to violations of American neutrality during the Napoleonic Wars by Britain and France. It prohibited American exports to Europe as well as British imports.

    Emergency Relief Appropriation Act (1938) Signed by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, this act allocated $3 billion in new funds to create thousands of new work programs.

    Erdman Act (1898) Allowed for mediation and arbitration as a means to settle disputes between employees and unions.

    Force Acts (1871) These acts were a congressional response to the rising violence of the Ku Klux Klan during 1868 -1871 in which several thousand Black men, women, and children were murdered. Provisions included federal supervision of elections in southern states and the power of the President to declare martial law in counties where the Ku Klux Klan was particularly active.

    Fugitive Slave Act A law passed to make it illegal for slave owners to search for slaves who had escaped to the North.

    "Gag Rule" (1836) Legislation proposed by Southern representatives trying to stop antislavery petitions in Congress. It stated that all antislavery petitions would be tabled without ever being read. It was repealed in 1844.

    General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade - G.A.T.T. (1967) An agreement that includes nearly 100 countries, GATT established a code of conduct for international trade. The code states that trade should be conducted without discrimination, tariffs should be reduced through negotiations, and member countries should consult together to overcome trade problems.

    Important Treaties, Acts and Doctrines (H-K)

    Hay - Paunce Fote Treaty (1901) An agreement between the United States and Great Britain that allowed the U.S. government to negotiate with Colombia (of which Panama was then a part) for control of the proposed Panama Canal. It revised the earlier Clayton / Bulwer Treaty.

    Highway Act (1956) An improvement of the Federal Aid Highway Act, this act provided funding for an accelerated construction program of four-lane limited access superhighways that vastly improved the nation's 3 million mile road network after strong public pressures.

    Homestead Act (1862) In an effort to promote development of the West, Congress permitted any citizen to claim 160 acres of public land, and own the land after living on it and improving it over five years.

    Immigration Act (1924) This law restricted the number of immigrants allowed into the U.S. It also established national origin quotas aimed at reducing immigration from southern and eastern European countries.

    Immigration and Nationality Act (1952) Also called the McCarran-Walter Act, this act passed by Congress to remove racial barriers to immigration also gave the Department of Justice the power to deport naturalized citizens and immigrants engaged in subversive acts.

    Indian Removal Act (1830) An act passed by Congress that gave the government legal right to relocate Native Americans to reservations.

    Internal Security Act (1950) Also called the McCarran Act, this act required communist-front and communist action organizations to register with the U.S. Attorney General. It also denied their members employment within the federal government or its defense industries, and the right to use U.S. passports. This was passed during the era of McCarthyism and the Red Scare.

    Intolerable Acts (1774) The British response to the Boston Tea Party, these acts closed Boston Harbor, established that the governing council would only be appointed by the King, forced private residents to quarter British troops in their homes, and put the city of Boston under martial law. The act was resented throughout the colonies as being unfair and too harsh.

    Kansas / Nebraska Act (1854) This act, proposed by Sen. Stephen Douglas of Illinois, repealed the Missouri Compromise and was hoped would solve the issue of slavery in the territories by creating two new territories--Kansas and Nebraska. The question of slavery would be decided by popular sovereignty. It was strongly opposed by anti-slavery groups and lead to bitterness and bloodshed in Kansas.

    Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928) A treaty intended to urge using peaceful means to settle international disputes and to renounce war as an instrument of national policy. Originally signed by 15 nations and later signed by 49 more, it proved ineffective because it did not provide for enforcement of the pact.

    Important Treaties, Acts and Doctrines (L-N)

    Labor-Management Reporting and Disclosure Act (1959) See Landrum / Griffin Act (1959).

    Landrum / Griffin Act (1959) Also known as the Labor-Management Reporting and Disclosure Act, this bill attempted to "eliminate or prevent improper practices on the part of labor organizations, employers, labor relations consultants and their officers or representatives." It was passed after a congressional investigation into the Teamsters union.

    Lend-Lease Act (1941) An act passed during WWII that allowed U.S. allies to purchase material and services from the U.S. and pay for them in kind after the war.

    Mayflower Compact (1619) An agreement signed by a group of people called Pilgrims on their historic trip from Plymouth, England to Cape Cod Bay in the New World. The compact provided for a set of laws and a government for their new colony.

    McKinley Tariff Act (1890) Sponsored by the Chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee, William McKinley, the law increased duties on imported goods to an average of 48.4 percent.

    Molasses Act (1733) This act, passed by the British Parliament, was designed to uphold England's policy of mercantilism. It placed taxes on molasses, rum, and sugar imported from any foreign powers.

    Monroe Doctrine (1823) Policy enacted by President Monroe that stated the U. S. would be opposed to any further European intervention in any part of the Western Hemisphere.

    Morrill Land Grant Act (1862) This law signed by President Abraham Lincoln provided 30,000 acres of land to each state to establish colleges that would teach engineering, agriculture, and military science.

    National Industry Recovery Act (NIRA) (1933) This act was part of President Franklin Roosevelt's "New Deal" policy to create work codes and industry safety regulations.

    National Labor Relations Act / Wagner Act (1935) This act gave workers the legal right to organize and bargain collectively.

    National Security Act (1947) This Act reorganized the defense department replacing the separate War and Navy departments with a unified military establishment. It also created the CIA and the National Security Council.

    NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization (1949) An organization formed to provide a collective defense against aggression. It is a composite of the 12 nations Atlantic Pact along with Turkey, Greece, and the Federal Republic of Germany.

    Navigation Act (1651) Act of British Parliament designed to expand British trade while at the same time limiting trade by British colonies with those countries that were economic rivals to Great Britain.

    Neutrality Act (1935) Passed after the Italian invasion of Ethiopia, this act prohibited Americans from shipping or selling arms to countries involved in a declared war. The second act passed a year later prohibited extending lines of credit to foreign powers involved in war.

    Non-Intercourse Act (1809) A revision of the unpopular Embargo Act, it changed the act to allow trade with some European countries.

    Northwest Ordinance (1787) This ordinance was one of the few lasting accomplishments of the Articles of Confederation government. It created the Northwest Territory in the area of present day Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, Michigan, Illinois, and Wisconsin. It prohibited slavery in the territory and set the requirements for admission to the Union for territories wishing to become states.

    Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty (1963) An agreement signed by 96 nations along with the U.S., Great Britain and Russia, to stop all atmospheric tests of nuclear weapons by the end of 1963.

    Important Treaties, Acts Doctrines (O-S)

    Occupational Safety and Health Act (1970) The purpose of this act is "to assure so far as possible every working man and woman in the nation safe and healthful working conditions."

    Open Door Policy (1899) This policy asks that all countries respect the territorial integrity of China and pursue a policy of free trade in their respective spheres of influence.

    Oregon Treaty (1846) This treaty between Britain and the U.S. gave the U.S. all the territory west of the Rocky Mountains south of the 49th parallel.

    Panama Canal Act (1912) Law passed by Congress to allow American ships toll-free passage through the canal provided they are involved in coast wide trade.

    Panama Canal Treaty (1903) An agreement between Panama and the U.S. stating that the U.S. would provide military protection to Panama in exchange for exclusive rights to build and operate a canal.

    Pendleton Act (1883) This act established a Civil Service Commission and required candidates for civil service jobs be judged on talent and merit rather than party affiliation, thus ruling out political interference in civil service appointments and removals. This act followed President Garfield's assassination by a disappointed civil service office seeker.

    Quartering Act (1765) This act forced colonies that held British troops to provide them with a place to live as well as food and supplies.

    Reclamation Act (1902) The act established the Bureau of Reclamation and authorized the building of irrigation projects in the 16 states west of the Mississippi River.

    Rush-Bagot Treaty (1817) Treaty between the U.S. and Britain designed to establish limits on naval forces on the Great Lakes. Each country is allowed to have no more than one single-gun ship of 100 tons on each lake.

    SEATO Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (1954) An organization formed to establish a collective defense against aggression in Southeast Asia and the Southwestern Pacific. Formed in Manila, this organization included the U.S., Great Britain, Australia, New Zealand, Thailand, Pakistan, and Philippines. The organization was abolished in 1977.

    Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890) This was the first law passed that was designed to deal with the growing domination of economic power by monopolistic corporations. It prohibited conspiracy, contract, or any combination business interests in restraint of interstate or foreign trade. Its most famous victim was the Standard Oil Company which was broken up in 1911.

    Sherman Silver Purchase Act (1893) This act was a revision of the earlier Bland / Allison Act and further increased the amount of silver to be available for coinage.

    Social Security Act (1935) A law passed to provide for old age retirement insurance, federal grants for state welfare programs, and unemployment compensation. Passed as part of President Franklin Roosevelt's "New Deal" it provided pensions for most commercial and industrial workers upon retirement at age 65.

    Specie Resumption Act (1875) This act was passed in an effort to stop the "greenback movement." It provided that after Jan 1, 1879 greenbacks would be replaced with a new currency that was firmly attached to the price of gold.

    Stamp Act (1765) Tax passed by English Parliament in order to raise money in the American colonies to pay for the French and Indian War. It taxed all legal documents, licenses, and newspapers. It was never enforced and was repealed in March 1766.

    Stimson Doctrine (1932) The U.S. would not recognize the Japanese government in Manchuria because of its illegality.

    SALT I - Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (1969) This treaty between the U.S. and the USSR froze the number of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) that each nation possessed. It also limited the number of antiballistic missile defense sites in each country to two.

    Sugar Act (1764) A law imposed by British Parliament raising the duties on sugar imported by the colonies. This act was designed to give British sugar interests in the West Indies a monopoly on the colonial market. The act revised the Molasses Act by reducing the tax from six pence to three pence. The enforcement of this act was strengthened by changing the site of trials from Colonial courts to British Admiralty courts.

    Important Treaties, Acts and Doctrines (T-Z)

    Taft-Hartley Act (1947) An act of Congress that modified the provisions of the National Labor Relations Act and provided for an eighty-day injunction against any strike that may cause a danger to public health and safety.

    Tariff of Abominations (1828) This tariff was meant to protect fledgling U.S. industry in the North by placing a high protective tax on imports. However, it actually increased tensions between the industrial North and the agrarian South, where the tariff received this name.

    Tea Act (1773) an effort by Parliament to save the British East India Company from bankruptcy. It gave the company a monopoly on the tea trade to the colonies. It provided cheaper tea, but cut out colonial merchants and was widely resented.

    Tenure of Office Act (1867) This act stated that a president could not, without Senate approval, remove any officeholder appointed with the Senate's consent. This was a blatant attempt by congress to pass a law they knew President Andrew Johnson would defy in an attempt to impeach him. Impeachment failed by one vote and the act was found unconstitutional in 1926.

    Tonkin Gulf Resolution (1964) Prompted by attacks on two U.S. destroyers by North Vietnamese torpedo boats in the Gulf of Tonkin, President Lyndon B. Johnson was given authority by Congress to increase U.S. military involvement in<1>the Vietnam War. The resolution has been called a functional equivalent to a declaration of war.

    Townshend Acts (1767) A British law that placed duties on paper, tea, paint, lead, etc. imported into the colonies. (Named after its English sponsor, Charles Townshend.)

    Treaty of Ghent (1814) This treaty officially ended the War of 1812, although word of the treaty wouldn't reach America until after the battle of New Orleans in which the Americans defeated the British. It restored all territory and provided that a commission would be established to examine the dispute over the U.S. / Canadian border.

    Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) This treaty ended the Mexican American War. The U.S. gained the territory of Upper California, New Mexico, and Arizona. Mexico agreed to recognize Texas as part of the U.S. with the southern border being fixed at the Rio Grande. The U.S. agreed to pay Mexico $15 million for the territory.

    Treaty of Portsmouth (1905) This peace treaty mediated by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt ended the Russo - Japanese War.

    Treaty Of Versailles (1919) This treaty, signed at Versailles, France on June 28, 1919 and went into effect January 10, 1920, ended WWI. The treaty was not ratified by the U.S. who made a separate treaty with Germany in 1921.

    Treaty of Westminster (1674) A treaty between the Dutch and the English, it gave the territory of New Netherland to England and was renamed New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Connecticut.

    Truman Doctrine (1947) A policy set forth by President Truman that would provide military and economic aid to Turkey and Greece and any other country threatened by communism.

    Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934) This act offered Philippine independence. However, due to World War II, Philippine independence did not occur until 1946.

    Volstead Act (1919) This act provided for the enforcement of the 18th amendment that prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcohol in the U.S. It was not well enforced and led to a rise in bootlegging and organized crime.

    Wagner Act (1935) Also called National Labor Relations Act, the Wagner Act was intended to regulate collective bargaining between employers and employees. The purpose of the act was to correct the inequality in the bargaining process that existed between labor and management.

    Water Pollution Control Act (1972) This legislation set a national five-year goal of waters fit for swimming and fishing by 1983, and no pollutant discharge into these waters by 1985. The act charged the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) with starting a program of more stringent water standards.

    Webster /Ashburton Treaty (1842) This treaty resolved a dispute over the U.S. and Canadian border. The U.S. received 7,000 of the 12,000 square miles disputed along the Maine and New Brunswick border. It also defined the border between Lake Superior and Lake of the Woods in Northern Minnesota.

    Signers of the Declaration of Independence

    Adams, John (1735-1826) from Massachusetts

    Adams, Samuel (1722-1803) from Massachusetts

    Bartlett, Josiah (1729-1795) from New Hampshire

    Braxton, Carter (1736-1797) from Virginia

    Carroll, Charles (1737-1832) from Maryland

    Chase, Samuel (1741-1811) from Maryland

    Clark, Abraham (1726-1794) from New Jersey

    Clymer, George (1739-1813) from Pennsylvania

    Ellery, William (1727-1820) from Rhode Island

    Floyd, William (1734-1821) from New York

    Franklin, Benjamin (1706-1790) from Pennsylvania

    Gerry, Elbridge (1744-1814) from Massachusetts

    Gwinnett, Button (1732-1777) from Georgia

    Hall, Lyman (1724-1790) from Georgia

    Hancock, John (1737-1793) from Massachusetts

    Harrison, Benjamin (1726-1791) from Virginia

    Hart, John (?-1779) from New Jersey

    Hewes, Joseph (1730-1779) from North Carolina

    Heyward, Thomas, Jr. (1746-1809) from South Carolina

    Hooper, William (1742-1790) from North Carolina

    Hopkins, Stephen (1707-1785) from Rhode Island

    Hopkinson, Francis (1737-1791) from New Jersey

    Huntington, Samuel (1731-1796) from Connecticut

    Jefferson, Thomas (1743-1826) from Virginia

    Lee, Richard Henry (1732-1794) from Virginia

    Lee, Francis Lightfoot (1734-1797) from Virginia

    Lewis, Francis (1713-1803) from New York

    Livingston, Phillip (1716-1778) from New York

    Lynch, Thomas, Jr. (1749-1779) from South Carolina

    McKean, Thomas (1734-1817) from Delaware

    Middleton, Arthur (1742-1787) from South Carolina

    Morris, Lewis (1726-1798) from New York

    Morris, Robert (1734-1806) from Pennsylvania

    Morton, John (1724-1777) from Pennsylvania

    Nelson, Thomas Jr. (1738-1789) from Virginia

    Paca, William (1740-1799) from Maryland

    Paine, Robert Treat (1731-1814) from Massachusetts

    Penn, John (1741-1788) from North Carolina

    Read, George (1733-1798) from Delaware

    Rodney, Caesar (1728-1784) from Delaware

    Ross, George (1730-1779) from Pennsylvania

    Rush, Benjamin (1745-1813) from Pennsylvania

    Rutledge, Edward (1749-1800) from North Carolina

    Sherman, Roger (1721-1793) from Connecticut

    Smith, James (1713-1806) from Pennsylvania

    Stockton, Richard (1730-1781) from New Jersey

    Stone, Thomas (1743-1787) from Maryland

    Taylor, George (1716-1781) from Pennsylvania

    Thornton, Matthew (1714-1803) from New Hampshire

    Walton, George (1741-1804) from Georgia

    Whipple, William (1730-1785) from New Hampshire

    Williams, William (1731-1811) from Connecticut

    Wilson, James (1742-1798) from Pennsylvania

    Witherspoon, John (1723-1794) from New Jersey

    Wolcott, Oliver (1726-1797) from Connecticut

    Wythe, George (1726-1806) from Virginia

    Original Thirteen Colonies: Connecticut (1630)Delaware (1682)Georgia (1732)Maryland (1634)Massachusetts (1620)New Hampshire (1623)New Jersey (1664)New York (1626)North Carolina (1654)Pennsylvania (1681)Rhode Island (1636)South Carolina (1663)Virginia (1607) Events Leading to the Revolutionary War

    Navigation Acts - 1699-1750 <1>Aimed at promoting the economic welfare of the British Empire by limiting trade between British colonies and rivals of Britain.

    Stamp Act - November 1, 1765 <1>Required stamps be purchased and placed on papers such as legal documents, newspapers, licenses, etc. The act was repealed in March of 1766.

    Boston Massacre - March 5, 1770 <1>Conflict between a mob of Boston citizens and a squad of British soldiers who killed several members of the mob.

    Boston Tea Party - December 16, 1773 <1>A protest against import taxes on tea. The British closed the port of Boston to all commerce. The enraged Boston colonists dressed as Indians stormed three ships in Boston harbor and threw hundreds of tea crates into the water.

    "Intolerable Acts" - 1774 <1>Punitive measures passed by parliament in the wake of the Boston Tea Party.

    Quebec Act - 1774 <1>Parliament extended the territory of Quebec to include land already claimed by several American colonies.

    Rev. War-Significant Events

    "0a8a">Prewar Years

    "0a8b">Colonists Prepare for War

    "0a8c">War is Declared

    "0a8d">The War Years

    "0a8e">The War Ends

    "0a8f">New Government Begins

    Revolutionary War-Major Battles

    "0a90">Bennington

    "0a91">Brandywine

    "0a92">Bunker Hill

    "0a93">Camden

    "0a94">Concord

    "0a95">Cowpens

    "0a96">Freeman's Farm (Saratoga 2nd Battle)

    "0a97">Germantown

    "0a98">Guilford Courthouse

    "0a99">King's Mountain

    "0a9a">Lexington

    "0a9b">Long Island

    "0a9c">Manmouth

    "0a9d">Oriskany

    "0a9e">Quebec

    "0a9f">Savannah

    "0aa0">Trenton

    "0aa1">Vincennes

    "0aa2">Yorktown (Siege)

    Revolutionary War Timeline:1775

    April - War begins when fighting breaks out in Concord, Massachusetts and Lexington, North Carolina.

    May - Colonists capture Fort Ticonderoga, New York and the second Continental Congress opens in Philadelphia a month after the war begins.

    June George Washington is elected to become the Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army, Battle of Bunker Hill, Boston. American General Putnam is remembered for saying, "Don't shoot until you can see the whites of their eyes".

    December - Battle of Quebec opens up New York to British invasion.

    Revolutionary War Timeline:1776

    March - British leave Boston.

    July - Declaration of Independence, written by Thomas Jefferson, is signed July 4th in Philadelphia.

    August - Battle of Long Island, New York is a British victory for General William Howe.

    September - British occupy New York City.

    November - British capture Fort Washington, New York and Fort Lee, New Jersey.

    December - Battle of Trenton, New Jersey; General Washington defeats British General Johann Rall; boosts morale for the Americans.

    Revolutionary War Timeline:1777

    January - Battle of Princeton, New Jersey.

    July - British recapture Fort Ticonderoga, New York.

    September - Battle of Brandywine, Pennsylvania leads to British occupation of Philadelphia.

    October - Battle of Germantown, Pennsylvania; British General Howe defeats General Washington and retains Philadelphia; British General Burgoyne surrenders at Saratoga, New York.

    December - General Washington moves his army to Valley Forge, Pennsylvania.

    Revolutionary War Timeline:1778

    February - Americans sign treaty with France. France becomes the first European country to recognize the United States as an independent country.

    June - Battle of Monmouth, New Jersey; British General Henry Clinton reinforces British forces in New York.

    December - British occupy Savannah, Georgia.

    Revolutionary War Timeline:1779

    June - Spain declares war on Britain.

    September - John Paul Jones captures the British frigate, Serapsis. Jones is remembered for saying, "I have not yet begun to fight".

    Revolutionary War Timeline:1780

    May - Americans surrender Charleston, South Carolina.

    August - Battle of Camden, South Carolina; American defeat exposes North Carolina to the British.

    October - Battle of Kings Mountain, North and South Carolina; American victory sends Lord Cornwallis back to Camden, South Carolina.

    Revolutionary War Timeline:1781

    March - Battle of Guilford Court House, North Carolina; British victory but heavy losses force Lord Cornwallis to Yorktown.

    September - Battle of Yorktown begins. General Washington and Admiral de Grasse (French) lay siege to Yorktown (September 28-October 19).

    October - British Army surrenders at Yorktown, ending the war.

    Revolutionary War Timeline:1782

    July - British leave Savannah, Georgia.

    November - Draft of Peace Treaty is signed in Paris, France.

    December - British leave Charleston, South Carolina.

    Revolutionary War Timeline:1783

    April - United States ratifies peace treaty draft.

    September - Final peace treaty (called the Treaty of Paris) is signed in Paris, France.

    US Naval Victories of the War of 1812

    USS United States defeats British Macedonian off the Azores.

    USS Essex defeats the Alert.

    USS Constitution defeats the Guerriere.

    USS Wasp defeats the Frolic.

    USS Constitution defeats the Java.

    War of 1812 Timeline

    1812 - The British capture Detroit, Michigan.

    1813 - Under the command of Commodore Perry the USS Constitution and the USS United States win the Battle of Lake Erie. Perry is remembered for saying, "We have met the enemy and they are ours.

    1814 The British land in Maryland and defeat U.S. Forces. The U.S. Capitol and White House are burned.

    "0a55">Antigua

  • The British fail to take Fort McHenry at Baltimore.
  • Francis Scott Key writes the words to the "Star Spangled Banner" as the British are attacking Fort McHenry.
  • U.S. Victory leads to a peace treaty signed at Paris, France on December 24, 1814.

    1815 - British troops, unaware that a peace treaty has been signed, attack U.S. Forces in New Orleans. U.S. Forces are commanded by Andrew Jackson. U.S. casualties are 71 and British casualties are 2,000.

    Events Leading to Mexican War

    1821 - Mexico gained its independence from Spain and included the Mexican Territory of Texas.

    1830 - 20,000 Americans lived in Texas, having taken advantage of the Mexican governments cheap lands prices. Mexico banned immigrants from the U.S. into Texas.

    1835 - Texas immigrants set up their own government headed by Sam Houston. Responding to this, Mexican Dictator Antonio Lopez de Santa Ana attacked the Spanish built mission Alamo that had been taken over by the settlers. Commanded by twenty-seven year old Colonel William Travis and 189 men that included Jim Bowie and former Tennessee Congressman Davy Crockett. The settlers stood ground against 4,000 Mexican Troops. Within an hour and a half after the fighting started all in the Alamo had been killed, along with 600 Mexican troops.

    1836 - Texas won its independence and became a U.S. Territory in 1845.

    Mexican War Timeline

    1836 - Texas wins its independence from Mexico but the Mexican government still refuses to accept the Rio Grand River as the southern boundary of Texas.

    1845 - Texas is annexed by the U.S. and becomes a United States Territory

    1846 - President James Polk, believing in the doctrine of Manifest Destiny, declares war on Mexico and annexes California and New Mexico.

    1848 - United States-Mexican War ends; Mexico cedes claims to Texas, California, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and Nevada

    1853 - Five years after the war ends, the United States pays Mexico $10 million for the additional land in southern Arizona and New Mexico. This land deal is called the Gadsden Purchase after the U.S. ambassador to Mexico, James Gadsden, who put the deal together.

    Major Civil War Battles

    "0aa3">Antietam

    "0aa4">Appomattox

    "0aa5">Atlanta

    "0aa6">Bentonville

    "0aa7">Bull Run

    "0aa8">Cedar Creek

    "0aa9">Cedar Mountain

    "0aaa">Chancellorsville

    "0aab">Chattanooga

    "0aac">Cherbourg

    "0aad">Chickamauga

    "0aae">Columbia

    "0aaf">Five Forks

    "0ab0">Fort Donelson

    "0ab1">Fort Fisher

    "0ab2">Fort Henry

    "0ab3">Fort Sumter

    "0ab4">Fredericksburg

    "0ab5">Gettysburg

    "0ab6">Hampton Roads

    "0ab7">Mobile Bay

    "0ab8">Murfreesboro

    "0ab9">Nashville

    "0aba">New Orleans

    "0abb">Petersburg

    "0abc">Port Hudson

    "0abd">Richmond

    "0abe">Savannah

    "0abf">Shiloh

    "0ac0">Spotsylvania

    "0ac1">Vicksburg

    "0ac2">Yorktown

    Gettysberg Address

    Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.

    Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation or any nation so conceived and so dedicated can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.

    But in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead who struggled here have consecrated it far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us- that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotionthat we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain, that this nation under God shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the earth.

    Abraham Lincoln

    Confederate States

    South Carolina<1>Date Seceded: Dec. 29, 1860<1>Date Readmitted: June 25, 1868

    Mississippi<1>Date Seceded: Jan. 9, 1861<1>Date Readmitted: Feb. 23, 1870

    Florida<1>Date Seceded: Jan. 10, 1861<1>Date Readmitted: June 25, 1868

    Alabama<1>Date Seceded: Jan. 11, 1861<1>Date Readmitted: June 25, 1868

    Georgia<1>Date Seceded: Jan. 19, 1861<1>Date Readmitted: July 15, 1870

    Louisiana<1>Date Seceded: Jan. 26, 1861<1>Date Readmitted: June 25, 1868

    Texas<1>Date Seceded: Feb.1, 1861<1>Date Readmitted: March 30, 1870

    Tennessee<1>Date Seceded: May 16, 1861<1>Date Readmitted: July 24, 1866

    Arkansas<1>Date Seceded: May 18, 1861<1>Date Readmitted: June 22, 1868

    North Carolina<1>Date Seceded: May 20, 1861<1>Date Readmitted: June 25, 1868

    Virginia<1>Date Seceded: Aril 17, 1861<1>Date Readmitted: Jan. 26, 1870

    Confederate Government

    President: Jefferson Davis (Mississippi)

    Vice President: Alexander Hamilton Stephens (Georgia)

    Secretary of State: Robert Toombs (Georgia)

    Secretary of War: Leroy Pope Walker (Alabama)

    Secretary of Treasury: Christopher Memminger (South Carolina)

    Attorney General: Judah P. Benjamin (Louisiana)

    Postmaster General: John H. Reagan (Texas)

    Secretary of the Navy: Stephen Mallory (Florida)

    Capital: Montgomery, Alabama; then Richmond, Virginia

    Union Government

    President: Abraham Lincoln

    Vice President: Hannibal Hamlin

    Secretary of State: William H. Seward

    Secretary of War: Simon Cameron (1861-62), Edwin M. Stanton (1862-65)

    Secretary of Treasury: Salmon P. Chase (1861-65), William P. Fessenden (1864-65), Hugh McCulloch (1865)

    Attorney General: Edward Bates (1861-64), James Speed (1864-65)

    Postmaster General: Horatio King (1861), Montgomery Blair (1861-64), William Dennison (1864-65)

    Secretary of the Navy: Gideon Welles (1861-65)

    Capital: Washington D.C.

    Civil War Timeline:1861

    March - Abraham Lincoln is inaugurated President.

    April - Civil War begins at Fort Sumter, South Carolina. Confederate victory.

    July - Battle of Bull Run (also called Manassas). Confederate victory.

    Civil War Timeline:1862

    February - Battle of Fort Donelson, Tennessee; Union army under Ulysses S. Grant wins over Confederate Simon Buckner.

    March - Naval battle between the Union Monitor and the Confederate Merrimac; it was the first battle between ironclad ships, the Merrimac withdrew.

    April - Battle of Shiloh, Tennessee; Union victory through which the Union gains control of western Tennessee; Battle of New Orleans, Louisiana (naval battle); Union victory.

    May/ June - Battle of Fair Oaks (Seven Pines), Virginia.

    June/ July - Seven Days Battle, Maryland and Virginia.

    September - Battle of Antietam, Maryland; Union victory; Confederacy is refused recognition by Europe; Lincoln issues preliminary Emancipation Proclamation freeing slaves.

    December - Battle of Fredericksberg, Virginia; Confederate victory

    Civil War Timeline:1863

    January - Lincoln issues Emancipation Proclamation

    May - Battle of Chancellorville, Virginia; Confederate victory; Stonewall Jackson is killed by his own men.

    July - Battle of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania; Union victory marks turning point of the war; Battle of Vicksburg, Mississippi victory gains the Union control of the Mississippi region.

    September - Battle of Chickamauga, Georgia; Confederate victory that temporarily halts their retreat.

    November - Lincoln delivers Gettysburg Address; Battle of Chattanooga, Tennessee; Union victory that clears the way for a Union invasion of Georgia.

    Civil War Timeline:1864

    March - General Grant becomes General-in-Chief of the Union armies.

    May - Battle of Wilderness, Virginia; Battle of Spotysville, Virginia; Confederate victory stops Grant on his drive toward Richmond, Virginia.

    June - Battle of Petersburg, Virginia; Union victory; Confederate raid on Washington is almost successful under General Jubal Early.

    August - Naval Battle of Mobile Bay, Alabama; Union victory blocks access to Mobile from the sea.

    September - General Sherman occupies Atlanta, Georgia.

    November - Abraham Lincoln is re-elected President; Sherman begins his March to the Sea.

    December - Battle of Nashville, Tennessee; Union victory that allows General Sherman to continue his March to the Sea; Sherman occupies Savanna, Georgia.

    Civil War Timeline:1865

    February - General Robert E. Lee becomes General-in-Chief of the Confederate armies.

    March - Confederates attempt to break out of Petersburg, Virginia and fail.

    April - Confederates retreat from Richmond, Virginia; Battle of Apomattox Court House. Lee surrenders to Grant and the Civil War is over; President Lincoln is assassinated by John Wilkes Booth on April 14; on April 26 Booth is shot and killed.

    May - Last Confederate army surrenders.

    Beginning of the Spanish-American War

    February 15, 1898 - The American battleship, Maine, mysteriously explodes in Havana Harbor in Cuba, 260 seamen are killed.

    1898 - Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt, Secretary of State John Hay, and Senator Henry Cabot Lodge urge the U.S. to declare war on Spain.

    April 19, 1898 - Congress votes to recognize Cuba's independence from Spain.

    April 24, 1898 - Spain declares war on the United States.

    April 25, 1898 - U.S. Congress declares war on Spain, but fixes the actual date of war at April 21, 1898.

    Spanish-American War Years

    May 1, 1898 - Commodore George Dewey defeats the Spanish fleet at Manila Bay, Philippines.

    1898 - Commodore Winfield Schley and rear Admiral William T. Sampson defeat Admiral Cervera's fleet in Santiago Harbor.

    End of the Spanish-American War

    August 12, 1898 - Hostilities between the U.S. and Spain formally end.

    December 10, 1898 - A peace treaty between the U.S. and Spain is signed in Paris. Spain Grants independence to Cuba and cedes the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico to the U.S.

    Pre-World War I Years

    1871 - Bismarck establishes the German Empire and seeks alliances to ensure German supremacy.

    1882 - The Triple Alliance is formed between Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary.

    1890 - Kaiser Wilhelm II dismisses Bismarck and assumes control of German affairs.

    1892 - France and Russia form an alliance.

    1904 - France and Great Britain form an alliance.

    1907 - Great Britain, France, and Russia form an alliance, known as the Triple Entente.

    1908 - Austria-Hungary annexes the Serbian provinces of Herzegovina and Bosnia.

    World War I Begins in Europe

    1914 - A Serbian nationalist assassinates Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife.

    July 28, 1914 - Austria declares war on Serbia.

    August 1, 1914 - Germany declares war on Russia.

    August 3, 1914 - Germany declares war on France.

    August 4, 1914 - Germany invades Belgium.

    August 4, 1914 - Britain declares war on Germany.

    1914 - Russians are defeated by the Germans in the battle of Tannenberg (eastern front).

    September 1914 - German forces are stopped within 25 miles of Paris, France.

    1915 - Germans use chlorine gas against the allied line at Ypres.

    1915 - Germans begin blockade of Great Britain with the use of submarines.

    1915 - British land in Turkey (Dardanelles) at the request of the Russians.

    May 1915 - The Lusitania is sunk by a German submarine. 1,198 people (including 128 Americans) die.

    1915 - Austrian and German forces conquer all of Lithuania and Poland. Russians lose one million men. This German victory was known as the "Great Offensive".

    October 1915 - France and Britain declare war on Bulgaria.

    February 1916 - The Germans attack the French at Verdum. The French and Germans lose close to 350,000 lives.

    1916 - An offensive attack is launched by British and French forces at Somme. By the end of the year, German losses were 440,000 people; Britain lost 429,000 people; and France lost 194,000 people.

    May 31, 1916 - The battle of Jutland was the only major naval battle of the war. This battle broke the will of the German fleet.

    August 1916 - Romania declares war on Austria-Hungary.

    December 1916 - Bucharest is captured.

    1917 - Russian revolution forces the Czar to abdicate. Russia signs armistice with Germany.

    U.S. Enters World War I

    1917 - The Hindenburg Line: a strongly fortified position located far rear of Somme. This allowed the Germans to quadruple their strength at Champagne.

    1917 - The Battle of Champagne was between the Germans and the French. The Germans almost destroyed the French army and nearly costs the allies the war.

    1917 - Germany sends six divisions to aid Austria-Hungary for the Battle of Caporetto.

    March 1917 - British invade Palestine at Gaza, successfully pushing back the Turks.

    April 6, 1917 - U.S. declares war on Germany.

    October 1917 - Turkey surrenders to Britain.

    November 20, 1917 - Battle of Cambria; the British penetrate deep into the German line. Allies learn how to crack the German lines.

    May 1918 - Germans advance to within 44 miles of Paris and are stopped by American forces. After the German advance was stopped, Americans attack at Chateau-Thierry, Vaux, Bouresches, and Belleau Wood.

    World War I Ends

    August 8, 1918 - Battle at Amiens, called the "black day of the German army" by Ludendorff, commander of the German forces at the Western Front. British troops advance between six to eight miles against the Germans.

    September 12, 1918 - Capture of St. Mihiel is first independent operation of U.S. Forces.

    1918 - The Hindenburg Line is penetrated by the 46th Division.

    1918 - Ludendorff, commander of the German forces on the Western front, requests armistice.

    November 1918 - German Navy mutinies and revolution breaks out all over Germany. Kaiser abdicates and flees to Holland.

    November 11, 1918 - Foch's "railroad headquarters". Germans sign an unconditional surrender.

    June 28, 1919 - The Treaty of Versailles peace treaty is signed.

    World War II: Major Battles/Campaigns

    May 10 - June 25, 1940: France Lowlands- gave Germany control of Western Europe.

    June - December 1940: Battle of Britain- saved Allies from complete defeat.

    September 1939 - May 1945: Battle of the Atlantic- assured Allied line of supplies.

    October 23 - November 4, 1942: Battle of El Alamein- saved North Africa for Allies.

    August 1942 - February 1943: Battle of Stalingrad- ended German advance into Russia and was Germany's worst defeat.

    June - July 1944: Battle at Normandy- established base for allied invasion of Europe.

    December 16-26, 1944: Battle of Ardennes ("Bulge")- eliminated Germany's last chance to win.

    May 1942 - April 1945: Air Offensive over Europe- weakened German industry and morale.

    June 3-6, 1942: Battle of Midway (naval)- ended Japanese advance in Pacific.

    August 1942 - February 1943: Battle of Guadalcanal- prevented isolation and invasion of Australia.

    October 23-25, 1944: Battle of Leyte Gulf- destroyed Japanese naval power.

    November 1944 - August 1945: Air Offensive over Japan- forced Japan out of the war. First use of atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

    World War II -1939

    September 1 - October 5, 1939: Germany invades Poland and annexes Danzig.

    November 30, 1939 - March 13, 1940: "the winter war"- Russia invades Finland and is expelled by the League of Nations.

    World War II -1940

    November 30, 1939 - March 13, 1940: "the winter war"- Russia invades Finland and is expelled by the League of Nations.

    September 1, 1939 - May 10, 1940: French sit and wait behind the Maginot line while the German Western Divisions waited behind the Siegfried line, or Weswall. Often referred to as the "sitting war".

    May 1940: Nazis invade Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg.

    May 1940: Prime Minister Chamberlain resigns and Winston Churchill takes over control of Great Britain.

    May 1940: Using "blitzkrieg" tactics, Germans cross the French frontier.

    April 1940: Germany attacks Denmark and Norway and gains control of Danish seacoast opposite of Britain.

    June 10, 1940: Italy declares war on France and Britain and invades France.

    June 14, 1940: Germans enter Paris.

    June 22, 1940: France and Germany sign armistice at Compiegne.

    June - December 1940: German Luftwaffe begins attacking Britain.

    September 1940: Japan signs the Axis pact with Germany and Italy.

    World War II-1941

    May 1941: Greece, Crete, and Yugoslavia are defeated by the Axis powers.

    June 1941: Hitler attacks Russia.

    August 1941: War aims are formulated by F.D. Roosevelt's Atlantic Charter between the US and Britain.

    1941: President Roosevelt appoints General Douglas MacArthur commander in chief of U.S. Forces in the Far East.

    December 7, 1941: Japanese air and naval forces attack U.S. Naval bases at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.

    December 1941: U.S. and Britain declare war on Japan.

    December 1941: Germany and Italy declare war on the U.S. The U.S. in turn declares war on Germany and Italy.

    World War II-1942

    February 1942: The British surrenders Singapore to the Japanese.

    April 1942: U.S. Forces surrender on Bataan Peninsula, Philippines.

    May 6, 1942: Filipino and U.S. Troops surrender to the Japanese at Corregidor Island.

    November 8, 1942: British and U.S. Forces land in French North Africa.

    World War II-1943

    January 14-24, 1943: FD Roosevelt and Winston Churchill agree on unconditional surrender goals.

    February 1943: The German 6th Army surrenders at Stalingrad. This is the turning point of the war in Russia.

    May 1943: War in Africa ends for Nazis.

    July 1943: Badoglio is named premier after Mussolini is deposed.

    September 1943: Italy surrenders.

    November 22-26, 1943: Churchill, Chiang Kai-Shek, and Roosevelt pledge to defeat Japan and free Korea.

    November 28-December 1, 1943: Teheran Conference: Stalin, Churchill and Roosevelt agree on invasion plans.

    World War II-1944

    January 22, 1944: British and U.S. Forces land on west Italian coast at Anzio.

    June 1944: British and U.S. Forces enter Rome.

    June 6, 1944- "D-Day": Allies launch invasion at Normandy and establish a beachhead.

    July 20, 1944: Bomb plot wounds Hitler.

    August 25, 1944: Paris is liberated.

    October 1944: Allies free Athens.

    October 1944: The United States invade the Philippines.

    December 16, 1944-"Battle of the Bulge": Germans launch a counter offensive in Belgium.

    World War II-1945

    February 1945: Yalta Agreement- Stalin, Churchill and Roosevelt agree on a plan for the occupation of Germany.

    April 28, 1945: Mussolini is executed at Lake Como.

    May 1945: Suicide of Hitler is announced. Admiral Doenitz takes command of Germany.

    May 1945: Berlin falls.

    May 7, 1945, "V-E Day": Germany is forced to sign an unconditional surrender at Rheims, France.

    August 6, 1945: The U.S. drops an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan.

    August 8, 1945: USSR declares war on Japan.

    August 9, 1945: U.S. drops an atomic bomb on Nagasaki, Japan.

    August 14, 1945: Japan surrenders.

    September 2, 1945: "V-J Day"- Japanese are forced to sign surrender terms aboard the U.S. Battleship Missouri.

    Beginning of the Korean War

    June 25, 1950- Communist North Korean forces invade South Korea.

    1950- The United Nations condemns the invasion as an act of aggression. U.S. immediately sends military aid to South Korea.

    June 27, 1950- President Truman orders U.S. Troops into Korea.

    Korean War Years

    June 28, 1950- Seoul is captured by the North Koreans.

    July 8, 1950- General Douglas MacArthur is designated the commander of the United Nations forces.

    August - September 1950- Seoul is recaptured by U.N. Forces.

    October 1950- U.N. Forces capture North Korean capital of Pyongyang

    April 11, 1951- General MacArthur threatens the Chinese with massive retaliation and is replaced by General Matthew B. Ridgeway.

    End of the Korean War

    July 1951 - June 1953- Armistice negotiations continue intermittently.

    June 26, 1953- Armistice agreement is signed.

    October 26, 1958- Chinese troops withdraw from North Korea.

    Vietnam War Timeline

    1950: 35 military advisors are sent to Vietnam by President Truman to aid the French.

    1954: The French are defeated at Dienbienphu. President Eisenhower begins sending civilian and military advisors to train the South Vietnamese.

    1963: South Vietnam's Premier, Ngo Dinh Diem is assassinated in a coup.

    1961-1963: U.S. Military personnel in Vietnam increases from 2,000 to 15,000.

    August 1964: North Vietnamese torpedo boats attack U.S. Military ships in the Gulf of Tonkin.

    August 1964: U.S. Congress authorizes President Johnson to take necessary steps to maintain peace.

    1965: U.S. Military planes begin combat strikes over targets in South Vietnam.

    1965: By the end of 1965, the U.S. has over 184,000 combat troops in Vietnam.

    1966: U.S. B-52 bombers strike the DMZ.

    October 1967: Nguyen Van Thieu is elected President of South Vietnam and is approved by the South Vietnam National Assembly.

    1968: By the end of 1968, the U.S. has almost 525,000 troops in Vietnam.

    January - February 1968: Siagon and other South Vietnam cities are attacked by Viet Cong guerrillas.

    October 31, 1968: Bombardment of North Vietnam is halted by President Johnson.

    1968: North Vietnam and the National Liberation Front (NLF- Viet Cong), join Saigon and the U.S. in Paris for peace talks.

    May 14, 1969: President Nixon announces peace offer and U.S. Troops begin to withdraw.

    1969: Vietcong form a Provisional Revolutionary Government.

    September 3, 1969: North Vietnam President Ho Chi Minh dies at the age of 79.

    April 1970: Nixon decides to send troops into Cambodia. By June 1970, all U.S. Troops are pulled out of Cambodia.

    January 1971: Congress bars the use of U.S. ground troops in Cambodia and Laos but doesn't restrict air power.

    April 1972: President Nixon orders mining of North Vietnam ports and intensified bombing of Hanoi-Haiphong area.

    January 1973: President Nixon orders offensive operations halted on all North Vietnam targets.

    January 1973: Peace pacts are signed in Paris, thus officially ending the Vietnam War.

    1975: Throughout 1974 both sides accuse each other of cease-fire violations and the war ultimately resumes.

    April 21, 1975: South Vietnamese Premier Nguyen Van Thieu resigns. The communists are victorious.

    April 1975: Last U.S. Troops and more than 100,000 Vietnamese refugees are evacuated from South Vietnam.

    June 1975: North Vietnam's Provisional Revolutionary Government takes control of the country.

    1976: Reunification of the north and south is made possible by the election of the national assembly.

    Persian Gulf Timeline

    1990 Iraq invades KuwaitIraqi President Saddam Hussein annexes Kuwait and declares it the 19th Iraqi province.United Nations Security Council authorizes economic sanctions against Iraq.Operation Desert Shield begins, President Bush orders 230,000 U.S. troops into the area.Iraq continues a large scale military buildup in Kuwait.Bush orders an additional 200,000 into Saudi Arabia.United Nations Security Council orders Iraq to unconditionally withdraw from Kuwait by January 15,1991. 1991 <1>January- Congress approves air strikes against military targets in both Iraq and Kuwait. <1><1>February-<1>Bush rejects a Soviet-Iraqi plan for a gradual withdrawal.Bush gives Iraq until noon February 23 to leave Kuwait.Ground war begins.Allies enter Kuwait on the 26th.Iraqi forces set fire to over 500 Kuwait oil wells. March-<1>Iraq and Allied military leaders meet to discuss a formal cease fire.Iraq agrees to accept all of the Unites Nations resolutions. April- Official cease-fire accepted and signed. Estimated Iraqi military casualties were 100,000 killed, 300,000 wounded, and 88,000 captured.

    US History Terms and Definitions (page 2)

    "0082">(back to page 1)

    "0ac3">Poor Richard's Almanac

    "0ac4">Quebec Act

    "0ac5">Reconstruction

    "0078">Revolutionary War

    "0ac6">Robber Baron

    "0ac7">Rough Riders

    "0ac8">Santa Fe Trail

    "0ac9">Scalawag

    "0aca">Seven Year War

    "0acb">Sharecropper

    "007c">Spanish American War

    "0acc">Stamp Act

    "0acd">Suffrage

    "0ace">Taxation without Representation

    "0acf">Teapot Dome Scandal

    "0ad0">Tennessee Valley Authority

    "0ad1">Trail of Tears

    "0ad2">Triple Alliance

    "0ad3">Triple Entente

    "0ad4">U.S. Battleship Maine

    "0ad5">U-boat

    "0ad6">Underground Railroad

    "0080">Vietnam War

    "0079">War of 1812

    "0ad7">Watergate

    "0ad8">Western Front

    "0ad9">Whitewater

    "0ada">Works Progress Administration (WPA)

    "0adb">World War I (1914-1918)

    "0adc">World War II (1939-1945)

    "0082">(Back to US History Terms and Definitions page 1)

    Abolitionist

    During the 1800s people began speaking out against slavery in the United States. Those who wanted to abolish slavery were referred to as abolitionists.

    Alamo

    Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821 and included the Mexican Territory of Texas. By 1830, 20,000 Americans lived in Texas, having taken advantage of the Mexican governments cheap land prices. In 1830, Mexico banned immigrants from the U.S. into Texas. In 1835, the Texas immigrants set up their own government headed by Sam Houston. Responding to this, Mexican Dictator Antonio Lopez de Santa Ana attacked the Spanish built mission, Alamo, that had been taken over by the settlers. Commanded by twenty-seven year old Colonel William Travis and 189 men including Jim Bowie and former Tennessee Congressman, Davy Crockett, the settlers stood ground against 4,000 Mexican Troops. An hour and a half after the fighting started, all in the Alamo were killed, along with 600 Mexican troops. Texas won its independence in 1836 and became a U.S. Territory in 1845.

    Amendment 13th

    A law passed in February, 1865 and ratified in December, 1865 that abolished slavery and freed all slaves.

    American Federation of Labor (AFL)

    Formed in 1886 to give unions the right to organize workers around a specialized craft or job. The AFL also developed collective bargaining practices.

    Atlantic Charter

    A joint Anglo-American statement made in 1941, prior to American entrance into World War II, that enumerated a number of principles held by both sides. The principles included: renunciation of territorial aggression, no territorial changes without consent of the peoples concerned, restoration of sovereign rights and self-government, access to raw materials for all nations, world economic cooperation, freedom from fear and want, freedom of the seas, and disarmament of aggressors.

    Black Cabinet

    A high-level group of African Americans working as advisors on New Deal programs as part of the Negro Affairs Department of the National Youth Administration in 1935. The Director of the Negro Affairs Department was Mary McLeod Bethune.

    Black Codes

    Even though slavery was abolished in 1865, southern states passed laws (known as black codes) that prevented former slaves from voting, joining the state militia, serving on juries, and testifying against whites in court.

    Boston Massacre

    March 5, 1770, conflict between a mob of Boston citizens and a squad of British soldiers who killed several members of the mob.

    Boston Tea Party

    December 16, 1773, the Boston Tea Party was a protest against import taxes on tea. The British closed the port of Boston to all commerce. The enraged Boston colonists dressed as Indians stormed three ships in Boston Harbor and threw hundreds of tea crates into the water.

    Bull Moose Party

    The third party name of the Progressive Party which Teddy Roosevelt started after being denied the Republican nomination for President in 1912.

    California Trail

    An overland route to the West that ran from Soda Springs, Idaho to San Francisco, California. The California Trail was a branch off of the Oregon Trail at Soda Springs.

    Carpetbagger

    The name given to people who moved from the northern states to southern states after the Civil War. The term originated from the suitcases made of carpet that they carried.

    Civil War

    A war between people of the same country. See "007b">American Civil War

    Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)

    One of the earliest New Deal programs, established to relieve unemployment during the Great Depression by providing national conservation work primarily for young unmarried men. Projects included planting trees, building flood barriers, fighting forest fires, and maintaining forest roads and trails.

    Cold War

    Hostility and sharp conflict in diplomacy, economics, etc. between countries without actual warfare. Also, the open yet restricted rivalry that developed after World War II between the U.S. and the Soviet Union and their respective allies.

    Common Sense

    A pamphlet written by Englishman Thomas Paine to the colonists urging them to exercise "common sense" and become independent from Britain.

    Compromise of 1850

    The compromise of 1850 was to determine whether California would enter the Union as a free or slave state. Negotiated by Henry Clay, the Great Compromiser, California entered as a free state.

    Concentration Camp

    A prison camp in which political dissidents, members of minority groups, etc. were confined. Concentration camps were used in the systematic destruction of over six million European Jews by the Nazis before and during World War II.

    Confederation

    The first American government. This form of government (unusual because there was no king or president in charge) lasted from 1781-1789. The constitution of the Confederation was called the Articles of the Confederation.

    Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO)

    The purpose of this organization was to represent all workers of one industry in a single trade union as opposed to having a large number of craft unions in a specific industry. In 1955, the CIO and AFL (American Federation of Labor) merged.

    Cumberland Road

    An overland route to the West that ran from Cumberland, Maryland to Vandalia, Illinois across the Allegheny Mountains.

    D-Day

    June 6, 1944, was the day of an invasion of Western Europe by Allied forces in World War II. This massive invasion of the French coast was organized by American General Dwight D. Eisenhower.

    Dred Scott Decision

    Dred Scott and his wife were slaves in Missouri, a slave state, but later moved to Illinois, a free state. When Scott returned to Missouri, he sued the state for his freedom. Scott's claim was that having been a free man in Illinois made him free anywhere. The resulting Supreme Court decision stated Dred Scott could not sue for freedom because it was the courts decision that he was considered property, and was not a citizen.

    Farm Security Administration (FSA)

    Created under the New Deal.

    Federal Emergency Relief Agency (FERA)

    Created under the New Deal during the Great Depression. Nothing required more urgent attention than the masses of unemployed workers who, with their families, had soon overwhelmed the miserably underfinanced bodies that provided direct relief. Congress established FERA to distribute half a billion dollars to state and local agencies

    Forty-niners

    The name given to those who moved to California during the gold rush. The height of the California gold rush was 1849, hence the name "forty-niners".

    Fourteen (14) Points

    Made by President Woodrow Wilson at the close of World War I, the fourteen points were a set of comprehensive war goals as well as ideas for the peace that would follow.

    Freedman's Bureau

    A law signed by President Lincoln and passed by Congress to provide aid to both black and white people in the South after the Civil War. The bureau also helped former slaves find jobs and protected them from discrimination

    Gadsden Purchase

    James Gadsden, United States Ambassador to Mexico in 1853, negotiated the purchase of land in southern Arizona and New Mexico from the Mexican government for ten million dollars.

    Gila Trail

    An overland route to the West that ran from Santa Fe, New Mexico to San Diego, California. The Gila Trail branched off the Santa Fe Trail.

    Great Depression

    The result of the Stock Market crash of 1929. As many as 25% of all workers were unemployed. The Depression lasted until the early 1940s.

    Great Society

    The title given to President Lyndon Johnsons domestic policy agenda. It included the idea that Americans would live better lives with the help of federally funded programs.

    Holocaust

    The systematic destruction of over six million European Jews by the Nazis before and during World War II.

    House of Burgesses

    In 1619, Virginia colonists were given a voice in their own government by the London Company. This early form of democracy became the first representative form of government in the New World.

    Impeachment

    An indictment or charge of a high-ranking government official for a crime. Congress, for example, can try the President for possible bribery, treason, or other significant crimes. The trial is held in the Senate and requires a two-thirds vote to impeach.

    Intolerable Acts

    In response to the 1773 Boston Tea Party where colonists dressed as Mohawk Indians and dumped the British tea cargo into Boston Harbor, the British government passed even harsher laws on the colonists. The colonists called these stricter laws the Intolerable Acts.

    Isolationism

    The term for not getting involved in the disputes of other nations. This feeling in the U.S. was ultimately responsible for the U.S. not becoming a member of the League of Nations.

    League of Nations

    A peace-keeping organization proposed by President Woodrow Wilson after World War I. Established in 1920, it was officially dissolved in April of 1946. The United States never joined the League of Nations.

    Lewis and Clark Expedition

    An expedition commissioned in 1804 by President Thomas Jefferson to dispatch two U.S. Army officers, William Clark and Meriwether Lewis to explore the Louisiana Territory. Their mission was to follow the Missouri River to its source in an attempt to find an all-water route to the Pacific Ocean. Assisted by a Native American woman named Sacajewea, the expedition gained help from the Shoshone tribe in crossing the Rocky Mountains.

    Lincoln-Douglas Debates

    A series of seven debates between Republican Abraham Lincoln and Democratic Senator Stephen Douglas for the 1858 U.S. Senate Race. Lincoln lost the Senate race but defeated Douglas two years later for the Presidency.

    Louisiana Purchase

    The Louisiana Purchase was land bought by the United States in 1803 from the French Emperor Napolean. James Madison, Secretary of State to President Thomas Jefferson, paid the French government fifteen million dollars for the 828,000 square mile purchase.

    Manhattan Project

    The top-secret atomic bomb research project headed by U.S. physicist Robert Oppenheimer.

    Manifest Destiny

    The idea that it was the will of God for the United States to stretch from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

    Mexican Cession

    Mexico sells California, Nevada, and Utah along with parts of Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico to the United States for fifteen million dollars.

    Missouri Compromise

    During the 1800s, as new states entered the United States, the North and South argued over whether the new states would be admitted as free or slave. In 1819 when Missouri applied for admission to the Union as a slave state, it would have given the South majority control of the Senate (12 slave states to 11 free states). Therefore, congressmen in the North were against admitting Missouri as a new state. Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky (called the Great Compromiser) proposed a solution, the Missouri Compromise, that would keep the number of free and slave states equal.

    Mormon Trail

    An overland route to the West that ran from Independence, Missouri to Salt Lake City, Utah.

    Mugwumps

    A term of derision that was applied to independent Republicans who didnt support the Republican candidate in the election of 1884.

    NAACP

    The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People was founded in 1909 and included both black and white members dedicated to improving the civil rights of African Americans. The NAACP was founded by W.E.B. DuBois, the first African American to receive a doctoral degree from Harvard University.

    National Labor Relations Act

    Gave organized labor federal protection in collective bargaining: it prohibited a number of "unfair practices" on the part of employers and created the strong National Labor Relations Board to enforce the law.

    Navigation Acts

    1699-1750, these acts aimed at promoting the economic welfare of the British Empire by limiting trade between British colonies and rivals of Britain.

    New Deal

    In an attempt to put an end to the Great Depression, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) proposed a plan called the "New Deal" aimed at getting the economy back on its feet. To get people more familiar, confident, and hopeful about the New Deal, FDR began a series of radio addresses to the nation called the "fireside chats." Some of the agencies that evolved out of the New Deal included: Federal Emergency Relief Agency (FERA), Works Progress Administration (WPA), Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), Farm Security Administration (FSA), National Labor Relations Board (NLRB). See glossary definitions for additional information on these agencies.

    Old Spanish Trail

    A 900 mile overland route to the West that ran from Santa Fe, New Mexico to Los Angeles, California. The Old Spanish Trail branched off the Santa Fe Trail.

    Oregon Trail

    A 2000 mile overland route to the West that ran from Independence, Missouri to Oregon by way of Soda Springs, Idaho. Typically it would take a covered wagon five months to complete the journey.

    Overland Routes to the West

    Several overland trails ran from the East to the Western Territories, these included:

    California Trail- ran from Soda Springs, Idaho to San Francisco, California Cumberland Road- ran from Cumberland, Maryland to Vandalia, Illinois across the Allegheny Mountains Gila Trail- ran from Santa Fe, New Mexico to San Diego, California Mormon Trail- ran from Independence, Missouri to Salt Lake City, Utah Old Spanish Trail (see above) Oregon Trail (see above) Santa Fe Trail- ran from Independence, Missouri to Santa Fe, New Mexico. 16th Century 1501-1550AD

    1501- Spanish colony of Santo Domingo is first to receive black slaves in America.

    1503- Leonardo da Vinci paints the Mona Lisa.

    1506- Construction of St. Peter's Church is begun in Rome.

    1509- Michelangelo paints the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome.

    1517 Turks conquer Egypt. Martin Luther denounces church abuses and reformation begins in Germany.

    1519 Hernando Cortes of Spain conquers Mexico. Fernando Magellan of Portugal begins his trip to circumnavigate the world.

    1520 Pope Leo X excommunicates Martin Luther. Suleiman I (the "Magnificent") rules Turkey and defeats the Spanish Fleet. Magellan is killed in the Philippines but one of his ships continues around the world.

    1524- Verrazano explores New York Bay and the New England coast for the French.

    1527- Italian Renaissance ends.

    1532 Pizarro marches from Panama to Peru where he fights the Incas. Machiavelli's "Prince" is published after his death.

    1535 Henry VIII makes himself head of the English church after his excommunication. Reformation begins in England.

    1536 John Calvin establishes Presbyterian form of Protestantism in Switzerland. Henry VIII executes his second wife.

    1541- John Knox establishes the Presbyterian Church in Scotland.

    1543- Nicolaus Copernicus publishes "On the Revolution of Heavenly Bodies".

    1545- Council of Trent meets to define Catholic doctrine and dogma.

    1547- Russian Czar Ivan IV (the "Terrible") conquers Kazan and Astrakhan.

    16th Century 1551-1598AD

    1553- Queen Mary I of England restores Roman Catholicism to England.

    1556- Mongol Emperor of India, Akbar the Great, Conquers Afghanistan.

    1558- Queen Elizabeth I establishes the state Church of England and restores Protestantism.

    1561- Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre of thousands of Huguenots restarts the French religious wars.

    1568- Netherlands (Protestant) revolt against Spain (Catholic).

    1570 The Pope excommunicates Queen Elizabeth I. Foreign ships are allowed to visit Japan. Spanish and Italian fleets defeat the Turkish fleet at Lepanto. Turkey ends its attacks on Europe.

    1580- Francis Drake circumnavigates the world and returns to England.

    1583- William of Orange rules the Netherlands.

    1587- Queen Elizabeth orders the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots for treason.

    1588- English defeat the Spanish Armada.

    1590- Galileo conducts experiments on gravity.

    1598- Boris Godunov is the Russian Czar.

    17th Century 1600-1650AD

    1600 Japan is ruled by Ieyasu and the capital is moved to Edo (Tokyo). England establishes the English East India Company to promote overseas trade.

    1607- England establishes its first permanent colony in America at Jamestown, Virginia.

    1609- Samuel de Champlain establishes the colony of Quebec for France.

    1611- King James version of the Bible is published in England.

    1614- Logarithms are discovered by John Napier.

    1618 Start of the Thirty Years War in which Protestants fought against Catholic oppression. Kepler proposes Third Law of Planetary Motion.

    1620- Pilgrims, sailing on the Mayflower, land at Plymouth Rock.

    1633- Galileo is forced by the Inquisition forces to recant his belief in Copernican Theory.

    1642- Oliver Cromwell defeats the Royalists in the English Civil War and become Lord Protector.

    1644- Manchus come to power in China ending the Ming Dynasty.

    1648- End of Thirty Years War

    17th Century 1651-1690AD

    1658- Oliver Cromwell dies and the Puritan government collapses.

    1660- Restoration of the monarchy is called for by the English Parliament.

    1661- Charles II becomes King of England.

    1664- The British take New Amsterdam from the Dutch.

    1665- 75,000 die in London as a result of the Great Plague.

    1666- Great Fire of London

    1683- The Turks wage war against European powers and conduct a three-month siege of Vienna.

    1685 King James II succeeds Charles II in England, and calls for freedom of conscience. Fearing the restoration of Catholicism, Protestants demand the "Glorious Revolution".

    1689 Peter the Great rules as Czar of Russia. Start of the French and Indian Wars

    1690- William III of England defeats former King James II and Irish rebels at Battle of Boyne, Ireland.

    18th Century 1701-1750AD

    1701 Beginning of the War of Spanish Succession. Queen Anne's War in America ends with the British taking Acadia, Hudson's Bay Territory and New Foundland from France and Minorca and Gibraltar from Spain.

    1704 French and Indians massacre English colonists at Deerfield, Connecticut. Bach's first cantata

    1707- England, Wales, and Scotland are joined by parliamentary Act of Union and form the United Kingdom of Great Britain.

    1729- The "Principia" by Isaac Newton is translated from Latin to English.

    1735- Freedom of press is established in America with the acquittal of John P. Zenger, New York editor.

    1740- Russian employed explorer Captain Vitus Bering (Dane) discovers Alaska.

    1746- British defeat Scots under Stuart Pretender at Culloden Moor, Scotland.

    18th Century 1751-1799AD

    1751- Publication of the Encyclopdie begins in France.

    1755- 60,000 die in Lisbon's Great Earthquake (Portugal)

    1756- Start of Seven Years War, France loses North American colonies to the British. Spain cedes Florida to Britain while Britain gives Cuba to Spain.

    1757- British Empire begins in India

    1759- France loses Quebec to the British

    1762- Czarina Catherine the Great rules Russia

    1765- James Watt invents the steam engine.

    1769- Sir William Arkwright patents the spinning machine.

    1772 Daniel Rutherford and Joseph Priestly independently discover nitrogen. Prussia, Austria, and Russia divide Poland.

    1775 Start of the American Revolution. Second Continental Congress appoints George Washington as Commander-in-Chief of American forces. U.S. seeks alliance with France.

    1776 July 4, US declares independance from England with the Declaration of Independence Spain and France agree to provide military aid to America. British execute Nathan Hale as a spy. Washington re-crosses the Delaware River to defeat 1,400 Hessians at Trenton, NJ.

    1778- Captain James Cook (English) discovers Hawaii.

    1781 Herschel discovers Uranus. Immanuel Kant writes "Critique of Pure Reason"

    1783 End of American Revolutionary War Beethoven produces first printed works

    1784- Russia annexes Crimea.

    1785- Russians settle the Aleutian Islands.

    1787- The U.S. Constitution is signed.

    1788- King Louis XVI convenes the Estates-General in response to grievances presented to him by French Parliament.

    1789 French Revolution begins in Paris when a French mob storms the Bastille (prison). George Washington is elected first American President.

    1790 Philadelphia is the capital of the U.S. Pitcairn Island becomes the home for HMS Bounty mutineers Lavoisier formulates the table of 31 chemical elements.

    1791- U.S. Bill of Rights is ratified.

    1794- Russians crush Kosciusko's uprising in Poland.

    1796 Edward Jenner introduces smallpox vaccination. Napoleon Bonaparte defeats Austria. George Washington's farewell address.

    1798- Under Napoleon, France conquers Rome and Egypt.

    1799- Napoleon becomes First Consul of France.

    Early 19th Century 1800-1825AD

    1800 Napoleon conquers Italy U.S. Federal Government moves to Washington D.C. Alessandro Volta produces electricity. William Herschel discovers infrared rays.

    1801 Temporary peace between France and Austria United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland is formed.

    1803- France sells the Louisiana Territory to the U.S. for $15 million. As a result the U.S. doubles in size.

    1804 Napoleon becomes Emperor of France. Haiti declares freedom from France. Louis and Clark begin exploring the western U.S.

    1805 Lord Nelson defeats French-Spanish fleets in the Battle of Trafalgar. Napoleon wins the Battle of Austerlitz over Russian and Austrian forces.

    1807- Robert Fulton makes first successful steamboat trip on the "Clermont".

    1808

    Spanish guerrillas are aided by the British in their fight against Napoleon in the Peninsular War. Importing of slaves is banned by the U.S. Congress.

    1812 U.S. declares war on Britain over freedom of the seas Napoleon's Grand Army invades Russia

    1814 Russia, Britain, Austria, Sweden, Prussia and Portugal defeat France in the War of Liberation. George Stephenson builds the first steam locomotive.

    1815- Napoleon returns and the "Hundred Days Wars" begins. Wellington defeats him at Waterloo, and Napoleon is exiled to St. Helena.

    1817 Venezuela proclaims independence under Simn Bolivar. Santo Domingo, Peru, Panama and Guatemala proclaim freedom from Spain.

    1820- Missouri is admitted to the United States as a slave state under the Missouri Compromise.

    1822 Greece proclaims independence from Turkey. Turkey invades Greece. Russia declares war on Turkey. Britain and France come to the aid of Greece. Portugal loses Brazil to independence.

    1823- Monroe Doctrine sends a message to European leaders not to interfere in the Western Hemisphere.

    1824- Mexico becomes a republic.

    1825- England builds its first passenger-carrying railroad.

    Early 19th Century 1826-1849AD

    1830 French invade Algeria. Joseph Smith forms the Mormon Church.

    1831 Russia crushes a Polish revolt. Belgium gains its independence from the Netherlands. Nat Turner leads an unsuccessful slave revolt in the U.S.

    1833- British Empire abolishes slavery.

    1836 Boer farmers start the "Great Trek" Mexican Army attacks the Alamo.

    1837- Queen Victoria rules Great Britain.

    1839- First Opium War begins between China and Britain.

    1840- Upper and Lower Canada are united.

    1844 U.S. Democratic Convention calls for the annexation of Texas and acquisition of Oregon. China opens its ports to the U.S. Samuel F.B. Morse patents the telegraph.

    1845- Congress adopts a joint resolution for the annexation of Texas.

    1846 Potato crop fails in Ireland. Elias Howe patents the sewing machine. U.S. declares war on Mexico. U.S. annexes California and New Mexico. Brigham Young leads Mormon settlers to Salt Lake City, Utah.

    1848 War between U.S. and Mexico ends. Louis Napoleon is elected president of the French Republic. U.S. and Britain establish boundary of the Oregon Territory. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels write the Communist Manifesto.

    1849- Gold rush begins in California.

    Late 19th Century 1850-1875AD

    1852- Republic of South Africa is established.

    1853- Turkey declares war with Russia beginning the Crimean War.

    1854 France and Britain join Turkey in its war with Russia. America establishes trade with Japan. Antislavery men in Michigan form the Republican Party.

    1855- Florence Nightingale nurses wounded troops in Crimea.

    1857 India is placed under British rule (Sepoy Rebellion) Dred Scott decision of the U.S. Supreme Court rules that slaves are not citizens.

    1858 Cyrus W. Field completes the first trans-Atlantic cable. Lincoln-Douglas debates

    1859 Construction begins on Suez Canal. Count Cavour begins unification of Italy. John Brown raids Harpers Ferry. Charles Darwin writes "Origin of Species"

    1861 U.S. Civil War begins. Italy becomes an independent kingdom. Abraham Lincoln becomes U.S. president. Russia frees serfs Pasteur proposes the theory of germs.

    1863 French conquer Mexico City. Archduke Maximilian of Austria is made Emperor of Mexico.

    1865 President Lincoln is assassinated. Joseph Lister pioneers antiseptic surgery. Lewis Carroll writes "Alice in Wonderland"

    1866 Alfred Nobel invents dynamite. Prussia and Italy defeat Austria in the "Seven Weeks War"

    1867 Russia sells Alaska to the U.S. for $7,200,000. Diamonds are discovered in South Africa. French leave Mexico and Maximilian is executed.

    1868 Spanish Revolution causes Queen Isabella to flee to France. Fourteenth Amendment giving civil rights to blacks is ratified in the U.S.

    1869 Suez Canal is opened. Mendeleev creates the periodic table of elements. Attempt to control the gold market in U.S. causes "Black Friday" panic.

    1870- Franco-Prussian War

    1871 Franco-Prussian War Ends Kaiser Wilhelm rules Germany.

    1872 U.S. Congress grants most Confederates amnesty after the Civil War. Jules Verne writes "Around the World in Eighty Days"

    1873- Gold standard is established in the U.S.

    Late 19th Century 1876-1899AD

    1876 Sioux Indians kill General George Custer and his troops at Little Big Horn. Alexander Graham Bell patents the telephone.

    1877 Russo-Turkish War ends Thomas Edison patents the phonograph. Reconstruction ends in the Southern U.S. following the Civil War.

    1878- Congress of Berlin revises the Treaty of San Stefano ending the Russo-Turkish War.

    1880- Treaty between China and U.S. allows for U.S. restriction of Chinese labor immigration.

    1881- U.S. President Garfield is assassinated.

    1882 Robert Koch (Berlin) announces the discovery of the tuberculosis germ. Italy, Austria, and Germany form the Triple Alliance. Britain conquers Egypt. U.S. Congress adopts Chinese Exclusion Act.

    1883 U.S. Congress creates the Civil Service Administration. Brooklyn Bridge is completed.

    1885- British General Charles G. "Chinese" Gordon is killed at Khartoum in Egyptian Sudan.

    1886 Apache Indian Chief Geronimo surrenders. Dedication of the Statue of Liberty.

    1887- Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee

    1888 Mass killer Jack the Ripper strikes London. George Eastman invents the box camera.

    1889 The second (Socialist) International is founded in Paris. Flood kills thousands in Johnstown, Pennsylvania.

    1890 U.S. Congress votes in the Sherman Anti-Trust Act Indian Chief Sitting Bull is killed in Sioux uprising.

    1892- The diesel engine is patented.

    1894- Sino-Japanese War begins.

    1895- German physicist Wilhelm Roentgen discovers x-rays.

    1896 U.S. Supreme Court decision, Plessy vs Ferguson rules the "separate but equal" doctrine. Alfred Nobel establishes prizes for Peace, Science, and Literature. Marconi of Britain receives first wireless patent.

    1898 Anti-foreign organization, "Boxers", is formed in China. Spanish-American War begins. Pierre and Marie Curie discover radium and polonium. U.S. Congress declares Cuba's independence. U.S. Battleship Maine is destroyed in Havana Harbor.

    1899 Spanish-American War ends. Boer War in South America begins, ending in 1902 with a British victory. Union of South Africa is established and becomes a British dominion in 1910. Post World War II Era 1946-1954AD

    1946 United Nations General Assembly opens in London, England.League of Nations is disbanded.Monarchy of Italy is abolished.Winston Churchill gives his "Iron Curtain" speech warning of Soviet expansion.

    1947 U.S. proposes plan for atomic energy control. Soviets reject the plan.Truman Doctrine is proposed to contain Soviet expansion. Communist Information Bureau is formed aimed at rebuilding contacts among European Communist Parties.Britain grants independence to Pakistan and India.The Marshall Plan outlines recovery plans for Europe.

    1948 Britain grants Ceylon and Burma independence.Communists take power in Czechoslovakia.Gandhi is assassinated in New Delhi.Berlin Airlift begins.Korea is proclaimed an independent Republic.Nation of Israel is established.Organization of American States (OAS) is signed in Columbia.

    1949 Truman proposes the Point Four Program to help undeveloped areas of the world.North Atlantic Treaty Organization is established (NATO).Egypt and Israel sign armistice.German Federal Republic (West Germany) is established.Chairman Mao Zedong proclaims a Communist People's Republic of China.

    1950 Korean War begins with North Korea (Communist) invading South Korea.Truman orders U.S. troops into Korea.Truman orders development of hydrogen bomb.

    1951 Japanese Peace Treaty is signed by 49 nations in San Francisco.Schuman Plan pools the steel and coal resources of six nations.

    1952 NATO Conference approves the European Army.Queen Elizabeth II becomes the Queen of England.

    1953 Stalin dies in Russia.General Dwight D. Eisenhower becomes President of the United States.Edmund Hilary of New Zealand conquers (climbs) Mount Everest.Julius and Ethel Rosenberg are executed as spies in the U.S.Korean armistice is signed on July 27. Soviets explode hydrogen bomb.

    1954 Army vs. McCarthy hearings in U.S.U.S. launches first atomic submarine (Nautilus). Supreme Court ruling "Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka" bans racial segregation.Southeast Asia Peace Treaty (SEATO) is signed in Manila.Germany is admitted to NATO.Algerian War of Independence begins against France. It gains independence in 1962. Post World War II Era 1955-1962AD

    1955 Bulganin becomes Soviet Premier.Churchill resigns his post in England.Federal Republic of West Germany becomes a sovereign state.Warsaw Pact is signed.

    1956 Egypt controls Suez Canal.French and British forces invade Egypt.Israel attacks Egypt's Sinai Peninsula.Soviet troops crush Hungarian revolt.Communist forces crush workers uprising in Poland.U.S. forces cease-fire in the Middle East.

    1957 Eisenhower Doctrine establishes aid to mid-east countries that resist armed communist aggression.Russia launches first earth-orbiting satellite (Sputnik).

    1958 U.S. launches the "Explorer I", its first earth-orbiting satellite.Syria and Egypt form the United Arab Republic.European Common Market is established by Rome Treaty.Premier Khrushchev rules the USSR.French adopt a new constitution and de Gaulle is elected president.

    1959 Castro assumes control of Cuba.Dalai Lama (Tibet) flees to India.St. Lawrence Seaway is opened to Mid-west shipping.

    1960 Belgian Congo (Zaire) gains independence from Belgium.American spy plane U-2 is shot down over the Soviet Union.Soviet Union and Communist China sever their relationship over conflicts in Communist ideology.Adolf Eichmann is captured for war crimes against the Jews.

    1961 U.S. breaks diplomatic relations with Cuba.John F. Kennedy is President of the United States.Russia puts first man in orbit around the Earth (Yuri A. Gagarin).Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba.Alan B. Shepherd Jr. becomes the first U.S. astronaut in space.Berlin Wall is erected between East and West Berlin.

    1962 John H. Glenn Jr. becomes the first U.S. astronaut in orbit around the Earth.Adolph Eichmann is executed in Israel for World War II war crimes.France grants sovereignty to Algeria.Cuban Missile Crisis Modern Contemporary Period 1974-1980AD

    1974 House Judiciary Committee establishes impeachment charges against President Nixon for his Watergate involvement. Nixon resigns as president on August 8, becoming the first president to do so. Gerald Ford becomes the 38th president.Ford grants a full pardon to Ex-President Nixon.

    1975 Cambodian forces seize American merchant ship Mayaguez. U.S. military forces rescue the crew.Apollo (U.S.) and Soyuz (USSR) space craft physically link-up in space.

    1976 Federal Election Campaign Act is signed.U.S. celebrates its Bicentennial.Israeli commandos attack Uganda's Entebbe Airport to free hostages.Jimmy Carter is elected president.

    1977 President Carter pardons Vietnam War draft evaders."Gang of Four" is expelled from Chinese Communist Party and Deng Xiaoping is reinstated as leader.Nuclear Proliferation Pact is signed by the U.S., USSR, and 13 other countries to curb the spread of nuclear weapons.

    1978 Rhodesia transfers to black majority rule.Former Italian Premier Aldo Maro is kidnapped and slain by left-wing terrorists.U.S. Senate approves to turn Panama Canal over to Panama by the year 2000.President Anwar el-Sadat (Egypt) and Premier Menachem Begin (Israel) sign "Framework for Peace" at Camp David.

    1979 Pol Pot regime in Cambodia collapses with the fall of capital Phnom Penh.Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini takes control of Iran, the Shah flees.Margaret Thatcher becomes Prime Minister of England.Nuclear power plant accident at Three-Mile Island, Pennsylvania.Salt II agreement signed by Brezhnev and Carter.Sandinistas form government in Nicaragua.Militants seize the U.S. Embassy in Teheran (Iran).USSR invades Afghanistan.

    1980 U.S. breaks diplomatic ties with Iran.Shah of Iran dies in exile.Ousted Nicaraguan leader Anastasio Somoza Debayle is assassinated in Asuncion, Paraguay.Ronald Reagan is elected president.John Lennon (former Beatle musician) is shot and killed in New York City. Modern Contemporary Period 1981-1985

    1981 Iran frees U.S. hostages in Teheran. President Reagan is wounded in an assassination attempt. Pope John Paul II is wounded by a gunman. Sandra Day O'Connor becomes the first woman to serve on the U.S. Supreme Court. President Reagan fires striking air-traffic controllers when they refuse to return to work.

    1982 British win war against Argentina over the Falklands. Israel attacks PLO in Lebanon (Palestine Liberation Organization). Secretary of State Alexander Haig Jr. resigns. Princess Grace dies in an auto accident. Soviet leader Leonid I. Brezhnev dies and is succeeded by Yuri V. Andropov. First artificial heart transplant is performed in Salt Lake City, Utah.

    1983 Sally K. Ride becomes the first U.S. woman in space aboard the space shuttle Challenger. Political rival of Philippine President Marcos, Benigno S. Aquino, is assassinated in Manila. 237 U.S. Marines are killed in a terrorist explosion in Beirut. U.S. and Caribbean forces invade Grenada. Soviet warplane shoots down South Korean 747 jetliner, killing 269.

    1984 After 116 years, the U.S. and Vatican exchange diplomats. Soviet leader Yuri Andropov dies and is succeeded by Konstantin U. Chernenko. Roman Catholicism ends as state religion in Italy. First frozen embryo baby is born in Australia. President Reagan ends U.S. involvement in Beirut. USSR and other Warsaw bloc countries boycott U.S. Summer Olympic Games. Jos Napolen Duarte is elected president of El Salvador. IRA attempts assassination of British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. Indira Gandhi is assassinated. Toxic gas leak in Bhopal, India kills 2,000 people. Union Carbide plant is held responsible. Ronald Reagan takes oath for a second term as 40th president. U.S./ USSR continue negotiations for preventing arms race in space. New Zealand bars U.S. ship suspected of carrying nuclear arms. Spain and Britain agree to reopen the border of Gibraltar. Military rule in Uruguay ends after 12 years. Shiite Moslem gunmen capture TWA jetliner. Earthquake in Mexico kills thousands. Israelis bomb PLO headquarters in Tunis. PLO terrorists hijack Italian cruise ship Achille Lauro. Volcanic eruption in Columbia leaves 25,000 dead and/or missing. Egyptian jetliner is seized by terrorists as it leaves Athens. Terrorists kill 19 at Vienna and Rome airports. U.S. accuses Libya of aiding attackers.

    1985 February 16, Israeli troops withdraw from the Sidon area of Lebanon.Mikhail Gorbachev succeeds Konstantin Chernenko as the new party secretary in the Soviet Union.June 14, Shiite Muslim extremists seize an airplane flying from Athens to Rome. One American is killed and 39 are kept as hostages17 hour rock concert called "Live Aid" is held to raise money for people starving in Africa.Members of the Palestine Liberation Front hijack the Italian cruise ship "Achille Lauro" off the coast of Egypt.Arab terrorists seize an Egyptian jetliner en route to Cairo. 60 people are killed. Modern Contemporary Period 1986-1990

    1986 Portugal and Spain join the Common Market.President Reagan freezes Libyan assets in the U.S.France and Britain plan to build tunnel across the English Channel.Space Shuttle Challenger explodes minutes after launch killing all seven U.S. astronauts on board.Prime Minister Olaf Palme of Sweden is assassinated.President of Haiti, Jean-Claude Duvalier flees to France.Corazon Aquino succeeds President Marcos of the Philippines.Libyan and U.S. forces clash during maneuvers in the Gulf of Sidra.U.S. planes attack Libya on April 14.Desmond Tutu is elected Archbishop in South Africa.Major nuclear accident occurs at Chernobyl, USSR.Millions of blacks strike in South Africa on the anniversary of the 1976 Soweto uprising.William H. Rehnquist is approved as Chief Justice in the U.S.Volcanic gas kills 1,500 people in Cameroon.Arms control talks between Reagan and Gorbachev at Reykjavik are deadlocked.Diversion of funds from arms sales to Nicaraguan contras is revealed.

    1987 Soviet leader Gorbachev demands Communist Party reforms.Nuclear test moratorium is ended by the Soviets.William H. Webster is appointed head of the CIA.Italian Air Force general is killed by terrorists.AZT drug for treating victims of AIDS is approved by the FDA.Lebanese terrorist, Georges Ibrahim Abdallah is sentenced to life in prison in France.President Reagan imposes 100% retaliatory tariff on many Japanese imports.Argentine Army blocks anti-government rebellion.Austrian President Kurt Waldheim is banned from entering the U.S.Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher wins third term.Quebec accepts Canadian constitution as "distinct society".First Russian ship is attacked in the Persian Gulf.U.S. frigate "Stark" is attacked by Iraqi missile, 37 die.Prime Minister Rashid Karami of Lebanon is assassinated.Portugal gets majority government.Admiral John Poindexter testifies to his authorization of the use of Iran arms sale profits to aid Nicaraguan Contras."Tanker War" continues in the Persian Gulf.Pope John Paul II visits North America.Earthquake in Los Angeles kills 6 people.Worst U.S. stock market drop in history, industrial average drops 508 points.Senate rejects Robert Bork as a Supreme Court Justice.

    1988 Free-Trade agreement is reached between U.S. and Canada.U.S. and Russia sign accord on science research.Chiang Ching-kuo, President of Taiwan dies.Leslie F. Manigat is elected President of Haiti.General strike paralyzes Panama.Arizona Governor Evan Mecham is impeached.Li Peng becomes Prime Minister of China.PLO official Khalil al-Wazir is assassinated in Tunisia.Hungarian Reds oust Janos Kadar as party head.Heat wave in India kills 450.U.S. Navy ship shoots down Iranian jetliner killing 290 people.Terrorists kill 9 tourists on Aegean Cruise ship.Carlos Lehder Rivas, Columbian drug leader, is sentenced to life in prison by U.S. judge.Flash floods kill thousands in China.President Reagan signs law to compensate interned Japanese-Americans.Pakistan President Mohammad Zia ul-Hag is killed in plane explosion.IRA bomb in Ulster kills 8 British soldiers.Gorbachev is named Soviet President.U.S. and Philippines sign military-base treaty.PLO Chairman Yasir Arafat proclaims an independent Palestine.U.S. Air Force unveils a stealth bomber.Soviet legislature approves political restructuring and new national legislature.Benazir Bhutto becomes the first Islamic woman Prime Minister of Pakistan.Earthquake in Soviet Armenia kills 25,000 people.Terrorists blow up Pan-Am 747 over Lockerbie, Scotland killing all 259 onboard and 11 on the ground.Soviet spaceman sets space endurance record of 366 days in space.

    1989 Emperor Hirohito of Japan dies at age of 87. The Ayatolla Khomeini (Iran) orders the death of author Salman Rushdie for his book "The Satanic Verses".Mikhail Gorbachev is named President of the Soviet Union. Czech Parliament ends the predominant rule of communists and promises free elections in Czechoslovakia.Communist Government is overthrown in Romania.

    1990 End of Communist power monopoly in Yugoslavia. Soviet President Gorbachev blocks move for independence from Russian republics of Estonia and Latvia.Western Alliance proposes a joint action with Western Europe and Soviet Union ending the Cold War.Perisan Gulf crisis is initiated with Iraq's invasion of neighboring Kuwait.U.S. sends troops to Saudi Arabia in response to Iraqi invasion of Kuwait marking the beginning of "Operation Desert Storm".East and West Germany are formally reunited after 40 years of separation on August 31.United Nations authorizes the U.S. and allies to expel Iraq from Kuwait by force if Iraq fails to withdraw by January 1,1991.Soviet Foreign Minister Edward Shevardnadze resigns. Modern Contemporary Period 1991-1999

    1991 Israel opens consulate in Moscow.U.S. and allies begin air war against Iraq.U.S. orders Iraq to unconditionally vacate Kuwait by noon on February 23.Iraq fails to vacate Kuwait, on February 24 President Bush orders the beginning of the ground war.U.S. and allied forces enter Kuwait City on February 27 and begin liberation of Kuwaiti nationals.Iraqi forces surrender on March 5 and agree to all United Nations resolutions concerning their withdrawal and surrender.Iraq government voids its annexation of Kuwait on March 28.Soviet protesters march on the Kremlin in support of Boris Yeltsin.Official cease-fire is accepted, ending "Operation Desert Storm" in the Persian Gulf on April 5. Boris Yeltsin wins right to rule by decree and establishes a republican presidency.Russian republic of Georgia declares independence.Gorbachev agrees to allow Russian republics more governmental freedom.Soviet government agrees to allow citizens the right to travel and emigrate without restrictions -effective January 1993.Former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi of India is assassinated.NATO agrees to reduce troop strength by 50%.Boris Yeltsin wins Russian popular election making him the first popularly elected leader in Russian history.German Parliament agrees to make Berlin the capital of the new united Germany.

    1992 Yugoslav Federation is broken up.President Bush (US) and Boris Yeltsin (Russia) declare the end of the Cold War.Panama's General Nuriega is sentenced to 40 years in prison on drug charges.US forces are called home from the Philippines after almost a century of military presence.Czechoslovakia separates into two countries, the Czech Republic and the Republic of Slovakia.

    1993 The British Commons approves the European unity pact.Iraq accepts United Nations weapons monitoring.Russian President Boris Yeltsin dissolves the Russian Parliament.China breaks nuclear test moratorium.The European Union is created by the Maastricht Treaty.The US approves the North American Free Trade Agreement.South Africa adopts a majority rule constitution.

    1994 US ends trade embargo on Vietnam.Nelson Mandela is elected President of South Africa.The IRA (Irish Republican Army) declares a cease-fire in Northern Ireland.US ends Bosnian arms embargo.South Africa holds first interracial elections.

    1995 Japanese earthquake kills more than 5,000 people.US offers $20 billion in aid to Mexico.United Nations agrees upon easier Iraqi sanctions.US space shuttle docks with Russian space station.Fighting in Croatia and Bosnia increases.The Japanese cult Aum Shinrikyo ("Supreme Truth") attacks a Tokyo subway with nerve gas killing eight and injuring thousands.

    1996 United Nations charges Bosnian Croats and Muslims with war crimes.France and China agree to end nuclear testing.Benjamin Netanyahu is elected Prime Minister of Israel.Boris Yeltsin is reelected president of Russia.Hutu refugees return to Rwanda.Madeline Albright becomes the first female Secretary of State in the United States.

    1997 Princess Diana (United Kingdom) dies in a car accident in Paris, France.Russian President Boris Yeltsin signs the Chechnya Peace Treaty.Cold wave in Europe kills 200 people.President Clinton begins his second term as President of the United States.Nobel Prize winner Mother Theresa dies at age 87.

    1998 Brazil receives $41.5 billion in aid for its failing economy.US lifts some sanctions imposed on India and Pakistan for nuclear weapons testing.Saudi millionaire Osama bin Laden is indicted by the US for international terrorism.Chinese officials arrest many for supporting the new China Democracy Party.The United Nations World Meteorological Organization reports that 1998 is the warmest year on record.

    1999 The new "euro" becomes the legal currency for 11 participating European Union nations.Pope John Paul II. Visits the US and Mexico.International scientists trace the origin of the AIDS virus to African chimpanzees.Jordan's King Hussein dies of cancer and is succeeded by his eldest son Abdullah II.Rwandan Hutus kill eight tourists in Uganda in an attempt to disrupt the Ugandan tourist trade.Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic join the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).Bertrand Piccard (Switzerland) and Brian Jones (Britain) complete the first non stop round-the-world trip in the helium powered balloon "Breitling Orbiter 3".Scientists claim evidence of a three planet solar system in the Andromeda Galaxy.An earthquake measuring 7.4 on the Richter scale kills 16,000 in Turkey.People around the world prepare for Y2K computer problems.Puerto Rico votes to not become the 51st US state.The Russian space station "Mir" is abandoned after 13 years of service and is expected to fall from orbit in the year 2000.Berlin once again becomes the capital of a United Germany. World History 1999

    Jan. 1999 The new European currency, referred to as the "euro", becomes legal tender in all participating nations.Brother of Mexican ex-President Carlos Salinas de Gortari is convicted of murdering Jose Francisco Ruiz Massieu, Secretary General of the ruling Institutional Revolutionary Party.Pope John Paul II visits Mexico.King Hussein of Jordan announces his decision to name his son Abdullah as the next successor to his throne.Peace agreement in Angola falls through. U.N. Secretary General Kofi Annan declares Angola is now in a state of war.AIDS virus is traced to a species of African chimpanzee. Scientists suspect that human infection may be traced to exposure to the animal's blood.

    Feb. 1999 King Hussein of Jordan dies of cancer. Abdullah II, his oldest son, assumes the throne.Prime ministers of Pakistan and India meet to discuss differences between the two nuclear powers.U.N. votes to pull peacekeeprs from Angola due to continued fighting between government forces and rebels.

    Mar. 1999 After peace talks fail in Kosovo, Yugoslavia, NATO launches a military attack on Serbia.Bertrand Piccard of Switzerland and Brian Jones of Britain circumnavigate the globe nonstop in a helium / hot-air balloon.

    Apr. 1999 Canada creates a new territory named Nunavut as an autonomous region for its native Inuit people. The 820,000 square mile territory has a predominantly Inuit population of 25,000 people.President Ibrahim Bare Mainassara of Niger is assassinated. Control of the country is assumed by the Commander of the Presidential Guard.The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) celebrates its 50th anniversary.Astronomers discover a solar system with 3 planets in the Andromeda galaxy.

    May 1999 Panama elects first woman President, Mireya Elisa Moscoso.

    June 1999 South Koreans sink a North Korean torpedo boat.

    July 1999 A 3-year ban on British beef exports ends. British beef exports were called for by the European Union due to "mad cow" disease.King Hassan II of Morocco dies at the age of 70.

    Aug. 1999 Scientists find evidence of water on a meteorite that landed in Monahans, Texas. The 4.5 billion year old meteorite was once part of an asteroid.A 7.4 magnitude earthquake kills over 16,000 people in Turkey.Berlin once again becomes the capital of Germany, for the first time since World War II.After 13 years in space, the Russian space station Mir is finally abandoned. Launched in 1986, the aging space station was expected to fall from orbit and burn up in the atmosphere in the year 2000.

    Sept. 1999 Charges are dropped against 9 photographers and a motorcyclist in the 1997 auto accident that killed Princess Diana.An accident at a Japanese nuclear fuel plant is Japan's worst nuclear accident.A 7.6 magnitude earthquake hits Taiwan and kills 2,300 people.

    Oct. 1999 American Home Products, makers of the diet pill Fen-Phen, is ordered to pay $3.75 billion to people who suffered heart valve damage from the pill.Military coup orthrows Pakistani civilian government. General Pervaiz Musharraf assumes control of the country.

    Nov. 1999 China launches its first spacecraft.

    Dec. 1999 Northern Ireland resumes self-rule for the first time in 25 years. World History 2000

    Jan. 2000 84 year old Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet, having spent over a year under house arrest in Britain, is ruled medically unfit for trial.China issues Internet controls on all information that has not been approved by the government.The Y2K scare is put to rest as the world transitions into the new year. Experts feared computers might not adapt to the four-digit year requirement, consequently thinking January 1, 2000 would be January 1, 1900.

    Feb. 2000 Bosnia and Herzegovina elect their first non-nationalist government.

    Mar. 2000 President Bush grants "temporary protected status" to 150,000 illegal immigrants from El Salvador.Croatian General Tihomir Blaskic is sentenced to 45 years on prison for war crimes committed against Bosnian Muslims.Israelis and Palestinians reach an agreement on the next area to be transferred back to Palestinian control.Vladimir V. Putin is elected President in Russia.

    Apr. 2000 Japanese Prime Minister Keizo Obuchi suffers a stroke and falls into a coma.Ousted Pakistani leader Nawaz Sharif is found guilty of hijacking and is sentenced to life in prison.World Health Organization reports that two thirds of the world's blood supply may contribute to the spread of AIDS, hepatitis, and other diseases.

    May 2000 Vladimir Putin is sworn in as Russia's President in the country's first free transfer of power.A computer virus with the message "I love you" disrupts e-mail systems and destroys information on hundreds of thousands of computers around the world.Thalidomide, a drug banned worldwide in the 1960s for causing serious birth defects, now shows promise as a treatment for AIDS, some cancers, and leprosy.

    June 2000 Syrian president Hafez al-Assad dies suddenly at the age of 69.North and South Korean presidents sign an agreement designed to move the two countries closer toward peaceful coexistence.Iraq resumes testing of short-range ballistic missiles.

    July 2000 Israeli president Ezer Weizman resigns, surrounded by accusations of financial misdealings.Damaged gasoline pipeline in Nigeria explodes, killing hundreds.113 are killed when an Air France supersonic passenger jet, Concorde, explodes on takeoff near Paris.

    Aug. 2000 In Britain, the Queen Mother celebrates her 100th birthday.Free Press bill in Iran is killed by conservatives.Russian submarine Kursk sinks in the Barents sea, killing all 118 on board. Budget cuts in the Russian military are blamed.

    Sept. 2000 OPEC agrees to increase crude oil output by 800,000 barrels a day, prompted by world pressure.American, Japanese, and European banks unite to support Europe's unified currency.The 27th Summer Olympic Games open in Sydney, Australia.Palestinian statehood is postponed by the leadership assembly in Gaza City.

    Oct. 2000 Thousands of protesters swarm the Parliament in Belgrade, Yugoslavia and overthrow President Slobodan Milosevic.Palestinians destroy an Israeli shrine, Joseph's Tomb, after Israeli forces leave the area.700,000 people are left homeless in Bangladesh after the worst flooding in more than a century.Turkey requires all residents to stay home during the first door-to-door national census.

    Nov. 2000 Registration of Internet domain names in Korean, Chinese, and Japanese becomes possible.A United Nations report announces that 40% of the world's population lack basic sanitation facilities and that one sixth of the population has no access to a water supply.The longest tunnel in the world, 15.2 miles long, opens between Oslo and Bergen in Norway.

    Dec. 2000 Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak announces his resignation.Ukranian President Leonid Kuchma orders the closure of the nuclear power station at Chernobyl.The Millennium Dome in Greenwich, England, closes. World History 2001

    Jan. 2001 El Salvador becomes the third Latin American country to replace its national currency with the U.S. Dollar.Australia bans imported beef in attempt to prevent "mad cow" disease from entering the country.World Health Organization is called on to assist South Africa in containing a major cholera outbreak.60,000 year old remains found in Australia suggest that Africa was not the only site where early man originated. Scientists used DNA testing to make this determination.Libyan terrorist accused of bombing Pan Am Flight 103 is convicted by a Scottish court.

    Feb. 2001 Ariel Sharon defeats Ehud Barak to become Israel's Prime Minister.Taliban rulers in Afghanistan destroy ancient Buddhist statues.

    Mar. 2001 The Japanese stock market falls to its lowest level since 1985.The Australian Dollar falls to its lowest level in history, 50.48 U.S. cents.Abandoned Russian space station Mir splashes down in the South Pacific after 86,330 orbits.

    Apr. 2001 43 people are trampled to death at a soccer match in Johannesburg, South Africa.Abdelkader El Mouaziz of Morocco wins the London Marathon in 2 hours, 7 minutes, and 11 seconds.Anti-government rally in Singapore is the first of its kind in Singapore's 35 year history as an independent state.

    May 2001 Pope John Paul II becomes the first pope to visit Greece in almost 13 centuries.Hindus in India riot against McDonald's after alleging the company uses beef products in that country. McDonald's maintains that it does not use beef products in India.Moldova becomes the 142nd member of the World Trade Organization.The largest airplane in the world, with a wingspan of 290 feet, successfully completes its test flight. The Russian-made Antonov-225 was designed to carry the Buran space shuttle.France constructs its first new aircraft carrier in 40 years.

    Jun. 2001 A Palestinian suicide bomber kills 22 outside a crowded Tel Aviv discotheque.The King and Queen of Nepal are shot to deith by their son.Former Yugoslavian President Slobodan Milosevic faces war crimes tribunal at the Hague.The British Pound drops to its lowest point against the U.S. Dollar in 16 years.Palestinian leader Yasir Arafat and Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon reluctantly agree to cease-fire plan proposed by the U.S.The Leaning Tower of Pisa is reopened for the first time since 1990, after work to keep it from falling over is completed.

    Jul. 2001 Macedonia and Albanian rebels sign cease-fire agreement.International Olympic Committee chooses Beijing, China, to host the 2008 Summer Olympic Games.Six people taking part in the Running of the Bulls in Pamplona, Spain, are gored in the first day of the event.U.S. and Vietnamese scientists meet to discuss plans to study the environmental damage caused by Agent Orange, an herbicide used by the U.S. during the Vietnam War.The London Stock Exchange goes public.Russia and China sign a mutual friendship treaty, the first such treaty in more than 50 years.Canada passes a law to permit certain patients to grow and smoke marijuana for pain relief, subject to doctor approval.

    Aug. 2001 Former Bosnian Serb general is found guilty of genocide in the killing of 7,000 Bosnian Muslims.Russian President Vladimir Putin and North Korean leader Kim Jong Il meet in Moscow to pledge their efforts to fight international terrorism.The anticholesterol drug Baycol is taken off the world market after 31 deaths are linked to it.Palestinian suicide bomber kills 16 people in a Jerusalem restaurant.Brazil passes a law to give women equal legal rights with men. The law was first proposed 26 years earlier.

    Sept. 2001 Tokyo's Nikkei Stock Average closes at its lowest point since 1984.NATO allows the U.S. to exercise Article 5 of the NATO charter, which states that an attack on any NATO member constitutes an attack against all members.In a meeting with President Bush, Indonesian President Megawati Sukarnoputri does not agree to crack down on Muslim extremists in her country.United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia sever relations with the Taliban rulers of Afghanistan.

    Oct. 2001 NATO announces that the U.S. has proved to their satisfaction that Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda were responsible for the Sept. 11 attacks against the U.S.British and U.S. forces launch air attacks against Taliban forces in Afghanistan.World Health Organization (WHO) urges governments of the world to allocate more resources to mental health.President Bush announces support for the creation of a Palestinian state.A fiery truck accident in a 10.6 mile long tunnel in Bellinzona, Switzerland, kills 11 people and closes the heavily used tunnel for several weeks.

    Nov. 2001 Belgian airline Sabena declares bankruptcy.Canada's second largest airline, Canada 3000, declares bankruptcy.For the first time in 50 years, Taiwan allows direct trade and investment with China.Turkey changes its legal code to allow women to be equal to men beofre the law, and no longer subject to their husbands.Pakistan closes the Taliban embassy in Islamabad.Taliban war prisoners revolt in a prison near Mazar-e Sharif, Afghanistan. 450 people are killed, including one CIA operative.Russian court orders the closure of the last major independent television station in the country.The WHO announces that 40 million people in the world have either AIDS or HIV. The report states that 28 million of these people live in sub-Saharan Africa with the highest rates of increase in Central Asia and Eastern Europe.

    Dec. 2001 Due to a collapsing economy, the president of Argentina orders that no one may withdraw more than $250 a week from a bank account.Taliban forces abandon Kandahar, their last stronghold in Afghanistan. Both Mohammad Omar, head of the Taliban government, and Osama bin Laden are still missing.2001 Nobel Prizes are presented in Stockholm and Oslo.A bridge over the Mekong River in Cambodia connects Eastern and Western Cambodia by road for the first time.The World Meteorological Organization reports that 2001 has been the second warmest year on record, with an average surface temperature of 57.96 degrees Fahrenheit. The warmest year ever recorded was 1998. Amundsen, Roald

    1872 - 1928

    Norwegian explorer and first person to reach the South Pole. In October, 1911 he left his Base Camp with four others, fifty-two dogs, and four sleds. On December 16 he arrived at the South Pole with his party.

    Armstrong, Neil

    1930 -

    American astronaut and first person to step on the moon. Flying the Apollo 11 Spacecraft, he and astronaut Edwin Aldrin landed on the moon July 20, 1969.

    Balboa, Vasco Nunez de

    1475 - 1517

    Spanish explorer who discovered the eastern shore of the Pacific Ocean. Made Governor of Panama by the King of Spain.

    Bering, Vitus

    1680 - 1741

    Danish navigator working for Russia. Traversed the strait between Alaska and Siberia that bears his name.

    Cabot, John

    1450 - 1498

    Born Giovanni Caboto in Italy, he moved to Bristol, England. Under Henry VII, Cabot sailed across the Atlantic and landed in Labrador and claimed the North American mainland for England.

    Champlain, Samuel de

    1567 - 1635

    French explorer and founder of Quebec. Known as the "Father of New France."

    Columbus, Christopher

    1451 - 1506

    Italian explorer working for Spain and often called the discoverer of America. Looking for a short sea route to the Indies, he actually landed in the Bahamas on a small island he called San Salvador (Holy Saviour). His fleet consisted of three ships; the Nina, Pinta and Santa Maria.

    Cook, James

    1728 - 1779

    British navigator and explorer. Surveyed the Saint Lawrence river and Newfoundland coast. Discovered New South Wales and the Sandwhich Islands (now Hawaiian Islands). Was slain by natives during a dispute at Kealakekau Bay, Hawaii.

    Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de

    1510 - 1549

    Spanish explorer of the southwestern United States. Hoped to find the Seven Cities of Cibola, which were rumored to be fabulously rich.

    Cortez, Hernando

    1485 - 1547

    Spanish adventurer who conquered Mexico. Entered the capital city of the Aztecs, Mexico City, and held Montezuma, the great Aztec Emperor, hostage for ransom. Montezuma was killed in the resultant conflict.

    De Soto, Hernando

    circa 1500 - 1542

    Spanish explorer and discoverer of the Mississippi River.

    Drake, Sir Francis

    1540? - 1596

    First Englishman to sail around the world. Made continuous raids against the Spanish fleet in the area of Panama and South America. Landed on the coast of California, named it New Albion and claimed it for England.

    Earhart, Amelia

    1898 - 1937

    American woman aviator. First woman to solo across the Atlantic Ocean, first woman to fly non-stop across North America, and the first woman to fly solo from Honolulu to California. She disappeared over the western Pacific Ocean while trying to complete an around-the-world flight.

    Eric The Red

    950? - 1000

    Norse explorer and colonizer of Greenland.

    Ericsson, Leif

    ? - ?

    Believed to have landed on the shores of North America in the year 1000. He called his new discovery Vineland. He was the son of Norwegian explorer Eric the Red.

    Gagarin, Yuri

    1934 - 1968

    Russian officer and the first man to orbit the earth and return safely (April 1961). Killed in an airplane accident in 1968.

    Gama, Vasco Da

    1460? - 1542

    Portuguese navigator, explorer recognized as the first person to discover a sea route to India by sailing around the Cape of Good Hope.

    Glen, John H

    1921 -

    American astronaut. First American to orbit the Earth (Feb. 20, 1962) in his space capsule, the Friendship 7.

    Hudson, Henry

    ? - 1611

    British explorer working for the Dutch who explored the strait, bay and river named for him.

    Kidd, Captain William

    1650 - 1701

    Distinguished British navigator who ended up practicing piracy. Arrested in Boston and returned to England where he was charged with murder and executed.

    Lewis and Clark Expedition

    American explorers: Meriwether Lewis (1774 - 1809) and William Clark (1770 - 1838) led an expedition the northwest from 1804 to 1806. Appointed by President Thomas Jefferson to gather information on plant and animal life, geography, climate, Indian tribes, etc. During the trip, they were aided by Indian guide Sacagawea.

    Lindbergh, Charles Augustus

    1902 - 1974

    American aviator that was the first person to fly solo, non-stop across the Atlantic Ocean in the aircraft Spirit of St. Louis. The flight time was 33 hours and 39 minutes.

    Magellan, Ferdinand

    circa 1480 - 1520

    Portuguese navigator and explorer recognized for being the first one to sail around the world. Although Magellan was killed in the Philippines, thirty-one of his original crew completed the expedition on September 8, 1522.

    Peary, Robert Edwin

    1856 - 1920

    American arctic explorer who discovered the North Pole (April 6, 1909) and wrote: "Northward Over the Great Ice" (1898); "Nearest the Pole" (1907); and "the North Pole" (1910).

    Pizarro, Francisco

    1471? - 1541

    Spanish adventurer who conquered the Inca Empire of Peru.

    Polo, Marco

    1254? - 1324?

    Italian traveler born in Venice. In Peking, China, he lived in the court of Kublai Khan. Learned the Tatar language and served as Governor of one of the Chinese provinces.

    Ponce de Leon, Juan

    1460? - 1521

    Spanish explorer who searched for the fountain of youth in the area that is now Florida.

    Post, Wiley

    1899 - 1935

    American aviator and the first person to fly solo around the world. Later he broke the speed record for circling the world in less than seven days flying a plane called "Winnie Mae."

    Shepard, Alan B

    1923 -

    First American astronaut in space, May 5, 1961.

    Smith, John

    1580 - 1631

    English adventurer and leader of English settlers to Virginia. Headed the colony of Jamestown and established order out of confusion. Legend has it that his life was once saved by an Indian girl named Pocahontas.

    Verrazzano, Giovanni Da

    1485? - 1528?

    Florentine pirate working for the French. Discovered New York and Narragansett Bays.

    Alexander the Great

    356 - 322 BC<1>Son of Philip of Macedon. Became a student of Aristotle at thirteen and became King of Macedon at the age of twenty. In 334 BC he conquered the Persians and in 333 BC defeated Darius III and his 600,000 man army. Alexander the Great went on to establish his empire from India to the Adriatic Sea. He died at the age of 32 in Babylon.

    Amin, Idi

    1925? -<1>Political and military leader of Uganda who assumed the Presidency in January 1971 after leading a military coup against President Milton Obote. He was the chairman of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) 1975 - 1976. He was described as arrogant, ruthless, and shrewd and given to reckless actions. Amin called for the "extinction" of Israel at the UN General Assembly (1975) and was forced to flee from Uganda in 1979 by Tanzanian forces and Ugandian guerrillas.

    Andropov, Yuri

    1914 - 1984<1>He succeeded Leonid Brzhnev as Secretary-General of the Communist party in 1982. In 1983 he became the Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet.

    Antony, Mark

    Circa 82 - 30 BC<1>He was the ruler of half the Roman Empire after the death of Julius Caesar. He summoned Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, to Tarsus and subsequently followed her to Egypt. He then returned to Rome, married Octavia, sister of Octavian, whom he divorced to marry Cleopatra.

    Aquino, Corazon Cojoangco

    1933 - <1>She was the first woman to run for President of the Republic of the Philippines thought she lost the 1986 election, amid allegations of election fraud by Ferdinand Marcos. She assumed the office of President when Marcos was forced to leave the country.

    Astor, Nancy Langhorne

    1879 - 1964<1>American born, she was the first woman to serve as a member of the British Parliament (1919- 1945).

    Bhutto, Benazar

    1953 -<1><1>Pakistani political leader and the first woman to become leader of a Muslim state. She became Prime Minister of Pakistan December 2, 1988.

    Bolivar, Simon

    1783 - 1830<1>Born in Caracas, In Venezuela he was known as "El Libertador" (The Liberator). As a revolutionary leader he was responsible for freeing Venezuela, Colombia, AND Ecuador from Spanish rule.

    Brown, John

    1800-1859<1>The American abolitionist that lead an anti-slavery attack at Harpers Ferry, Virginia on October 16-18, 1859. He was convicted of treason and hanged December 2, 1859.

    Castro, Fidel

    1926 -<1>Cuban revolutionary leader who was responsible for the overthrow of Fulgencio Batista. He became Premier and declared in 1961 that Cuba was a socialist country.

    Charlemagne

    742 - 814<1>The King of the Franks under whom the Frankish state attained its height in power and extent. He was the first Germanic king to bear the title Emperor. Literally the name means Charles the Great.

    Charles, Prince

    1948 -<1>He is the Prince of Wales, Duke of Cornwall and Rothesay, Earl of Chester and Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles and Great Steward of Scotland. He is as well, Heir to the British Throne and military officer, qualified as a paratrooper, jet fighter pilot, and naval skipper. Married Lady Diana Spencer in 1981.

    Chisholm, Shirley Anita St. Hill

    1924 - <1>She is an American politician who was the first black woman to serve in the US Congress. She is also the first black woman to actively run for the presidency winning ten percent of the votes at the Democratic National Convention (1972).

    Churchill, Winston

    1874 - 1965<1>He was a soldier, orator, author, statesman and the English Prime Minister during World War II.

    Cleopatra

    69 - 30 BC<1>She was the sixth and most famous Queen of Egypt who went to Rome as mistress to Julius Caesar until his death in 44 BC when she returned to Egypt with Mark Antony to regain her throne.

    Cromwell, Oliver

    1599 - 1658<1>He was the Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland and agreed to the execution of Charles I. Cromwell's greatest accomplishment was restoring Englands world influence.

    Darrow, Clarence Seward

    1857 - 1938<1>He was an American defense attorney born in Kinsman, Ohio who is remembered for his defense of John T. Scopes, of Tennessee for teaching the theory of evolution.

    David

    Circa 1040 - 970 BC<1>He was the second ruler of the United Kingdom of Israel. As a young man he slew the Philistine giant Goliath with a stone from his shepherd's sling. Under the leadership of David, the Jews reached their highest point in political power.

    Davis, Jefferson

    1808 - 1889<1>He was a soldier, statesman, and President of the Confederate States of America. Also wrote "The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government" and "A Short History of the Confederate States of America."

    Disraeli, Benjamin

    1804 - 1881<1>He was a British novelist and statesman who entered Parliament as a Troy in 1837. He became Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1852, and Prime Minister in 1868 when Lord Derby retired. He also obtained the title Empress of India for Queen Victoria. As a writer his works include "Vivian Grey" (1826), "A Political Biography" (1852) and "Vindication of the English Constitution" (1835).

    Eichmann, Adolf

    1906 - 1962<1>German SS (Schutzstaffel) officer responsible for the murder and persecution of millions of Jews during World War II. He was captured in Argentina (1960) by Israeli agents and was taken back to Jerusalem to stand trial. He was executed on June 1, 1962, by the Israelis.

    Eisenhower, Dwight David

    1890 - 1969<1>The thirty-fourth President of the United States who was the Commander of Allied forces in Europe during World War II.

    Engels, Friedrich

    1820 - 1895<1>German socialist who collaborated with Karl Marx in the "Communist Manifesto."

    Gandhi, Indira

    1917 - 1984<1>She was the first woman Prime Minister of India and was the daughter of Jawaharlar Nehru, the first Prime Minister of the Republic of India.

    Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand

    1869 - 1948<1>He was the political and spiritual leader of India in its quest for independence and reform. Known as the Mahatma, or Great Soul, his philosophy was one of resisting injustice and oppression by non-violence.

    Garfield, James Abram

    1831 - 1881<1>The twentieth President of the United States who was the fourth president to die in office and the second to have been assassinated.

    Goldwater, Barry

    1909 -1990<1>He was an American politician who was elected US Senator (Arizona) in 1952. He ran unsuccessfully for President in 1964 against L.B. Johnson. His books include "Why Not Victory" (1962) and "The Conscience of a Conservative" (1960).

    Gorbachev, Mikhail Sergeyevich

    1931 -<1>Soviet political leader who became General Secretary of the Communist Party in March 1985 where he initiated two sets of reforms, economic and social. The terms identifying the reforms are "perestroika" (restructuring), and "glasnost" (openness). He received the 1990 Nobel Peace Prize for promoting international peace and ending of the cold war.

    Grant, Ulysses Simpson

    1822 - 1885<1>He was the eighteenth President of the United States and Union General during the US Civil War. On April 3, 1865, he captured the Confederate capital of Richmond (Virginia) and six days later (April 9) General Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox (Virginia) ending the Civil War.

    Hadrian, Publius Aelius Hadrianus

    76 - 138<1>Roman Emperor who built a wall in Northwestern England as a defense against the Picts and the Scots called Hadrian's wall, traces of it still stand today.

    Hammurabi

    Circa 2100 BC<1>Sixth ruler of the First Dynasty of Babylon, located in the Tigris - Euphrates valley, who established a code of law (Code of Hammurabi) based on Sumerian and Semetic law.

    Hannibal

    247 - 183 BC<1>General and statesman of ancient Carthage who is remembered for moving his troops, horsemen, and elephants across the Pyrenees, the Rhone, and the Alps in order to attack Rome.

    Harrison, William Henry

    1773 - 1841<1>He was the ninth President of the United States and the first president to die in office.

    Henry, VIII

    1491 - 1547<1>King of England who was responsible for cutting the ties binding the Church of England to the Church of Rome.

    Henry, Patrick

    1736 - 1799<1>American orator, patriot, and statesman remembered for his 1775 call to arms, "Give me liberty or give me death."

    Hirohito

    1901 - 1989<1>24th emperor of Japan who led Japan into World War II in a series of attacks on China and by attacking the United States in 1941. In 1945, he announced Japan's surrender to allied forces.

    Hitler, Adolf

    1889-1945<1>German Chancellor that led Germany and the world into World War II. He was instrumental in developing the National Socialist German Worker's Party or Nazi movement. He published "Mein Kampf" (My Battle), a plan for world domination and id responsible for putting into effect anti-Jewish policies and measures that led to the murder of six million Jews.

    Holmes, Oliver Wendell Jr.

    1841 - 1935<1>He was the first son of the author Oliver Wendell Holmes and was appointed United States Supreme Court Judge by President Theodore Roosevelt. Known as the "Great Dissenter" for the frequency of dissenting opinions. Author of "The Common Law" (1881).

    Ivan, IV

    1530-1584<1>He was known as "the Terrible", Ivan IV was the first Russian ruler to take the title Czar. He was the grandson of Ivan the Great and conquered Kazan, Astrakhan, and Siberia.

    Famous Government and World Leader (page 2)

    "0add">Jefferson, Thomas

    "0ade">Joan of Arc

    "0adf">John, King of England

    "0ae0">Johnson, Lyndon Baines

    "0ae1">Josephine

    "0ae2">Khan, Genghis

    "0ae3">Khan, Kublai

    "0ae4">Kennedy, John Fitzgerald

    "0ae5">Kennedy, Robert Francis

    "0ae6">Key, Francis Scott

    "0ae7">Khrushchev, Nikita Sergeyevich

    "0ae8">King, Martin Luther, Jr.

    "0ae9">Kissinger, Henry

    "0aea">Lenin, Nikolai

    "0aeb">Lincoln, Abraham

    "0aec">Mckinley, William

    "0aed">Mandela, Nelson Rolihlahla

    "0aee">Marx, Karl

    "0aef">Maximilian

    "0af0">Meir, Golda

    "0af1">Mussolini, Benito

    "0af2">Nation, Carry

    "0af3">Nebuchadnezzar I

    "0af4">Nebuchadnezzar II

    "0af5">Nehru, Jawaharlal

    "0af6">Nero, Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus

    "0af7">O'Connor, Sandra Day

    "0af8">Otto I

    "0af9">Penn, William

    "0afa">Peter I

    "0afb">Polk, James Knox

    "0afc">Rasputin, Grigori Efimovich

    "0afd">Revere, Paul

    "0afe">Robespierre, Maximilien Francois Marie Isadore De

    "0aff">Romulus And Remus

    "0b00">Roosevelt, Franklin Delano

    "0b01">Roosevelt, Theodore

    "0b02">Ross, Betsy

    "0b03">more

    Arkwright, Sir Richard

    1732 - 1792

    English inventor of the cotton-spinning machine.

    Bell, Alexander Graham

    1847 - 1922

    American scientist and inventor whose inventions included the telephone, the graphone (forerunner of the phonograph), and the telephone probe (used to detect bullets in the human body).

    Eastman, George

    1854 - 1932

    American inventor-philanthropist noted for his small hand camera called the "kodak."

    Edison, Thomas Alva

    1847 - 1931

    American inventor who by the time of his death, had over 2,500 registered patents. A few of his most famous inventions include the incandescent lamp, moving picture camera, and the Edison storage battery. His most notable quote was "Genius is about two percent inspiration and ninety-eight percent perspiration."

    Franklin, Benjamin

    1706 - 1790

    American author, statesman, scientist, philosopher, inventor, diplomat, printer, and humorist. His accomplishments range from signing the Declaration of Independence, the US Constitution, to inventing the lightning rod.

    Fulton, Robert

    1765 - 1815

    American inventor and engineer who is recognized as the inventor of the first commercially successful steamboat.

    Gutenberg, Johannes

    1400 - 1468

    German inventor who developed the art of printing with movable type. One of his first works was a 42-line bible known as the "Mazarian Bible."

    Howe, Elias

    1819 - 1867

    American inventor of the first practical sewing machine.

    Lawrence, Ernest

    1901 - 1958

    American physicist who invented a device for accelerating atomic particles, called the "cyclotron" (1931). He received the 1939 Nobel Prize in physics. Founder of the University of California's Lawrence radiation laboratory.

    Marconi, Guglielmo Marquis

    1874 - 1937

    Italian inventor of the wireless telegraph.

    Morse, Samuel Finley Breese

    1791 - 1872

    American inventor of the electric telegraph. First telegraph line was constructed between Washington and Baltimore, May 24, 1844. First public message transmitted was, "What hath god wrought?"

    Nobel, Alfred Bernhard

    1833 - 1896

    Swedish scientist, philanthropist, and inventor. He invented "dynamite", a combination of nitroglycerin and gunpowder and patented it in 1857. In his will he established a foundation to award prizes to persons who have made valuable contributions to the "good of humanity" in the areas of physics, chemistry, physiology, literature, world peace and medicine.

    Stephenson, George

    1781 - 1848

    British inventor of the steam locomotive. Known as the "founder of railways." His first locomotive was called the "Rocket" and attained amazing speeds of 30 mph.

    Volta, Alessandro

    1745 - 1827

    Italian scientist who pioneered in electricity. His inventions included the voltaic pile and voltaic battery.

    Watt, James

    1736 - 1819

    Scottish engineer and inventor known for his improvements on the steam engine. Also formulated the calculation of the horsepower, a unit of work.

    Westinghouse, George

    1846 - 1914

    American manufacturer and engineer who invented the "air brake", used extensively on railway cars.

    Whitney, Eli

    1765 - 1825

    American inventor of the cotton gin and mass production.

    Wright, Orville & Wilbur

    1871 - 1948 & 1867 - 1912

    American inventors who built and flew the first pilot controlled power-driven, heavier than air airplane. The airplane, called "Kitty Hawk" was first flown on December 17, 1903 at Kitty Hawk, N.C.

    Zeppelin, Ferdinand Von Count

    1838 - 1917

    German inventor of the first successful rigid dirigible.

    Asimov, Isaac

    1920 -

    American author of science fiction and non-fiction books. Born in Russia and moved to the US with his family at age three. He has written more than 300 books including "Nightfall" (1941), "the Naked Sun" (1956) and "the Death Dealers" (1958). He also established concepts such as the "Three Laws of Robotics" defining robot behavior.

    Buck, Pearl

    1892 - 1973

    American author who received the 1932 Pulitzer Prize for her book "the Good Earth."

    Carroll, Lewis (Pen Name)

    1832 - 1898

    His real name was Charles Dodgson. He was an English writer whose famous works included "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland" and "Through the Looking-Glass."

    Cervantes, Miguel De

    1547 - 1616

    Spanish writer whose first published work was "La Galatea" (1585). His most famous work, "Don Quixote" was published in two parts, part one in 1605 and part two in 1615.

    Clemens, Samuel

    1835 - 1910

    An American humorist who under the name Mark Twain wrote famous works including "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer" and "Huckleberry Finn."

    Dante, Alighieri

    1265 - 1321

    Italian writer and poet whose most famous works include "Divina Commedia" (divine comedy), "La Vita Nuova" (new life), and "La Commedia" (the comedy). The three parts of the divine comedy are: "Inferno", "Purgatorio", and "Paradiso."

    Dickens, Charles

    1812 - 1870

    English novelist who wrote about the world of the poor and middle class. His works include: "Oliver Twist" (1838), "David Copperfield" (1850), "A Tale of Two Cities" (1859) and "A Christmas Carol."

    Fitzgerald, (Francis) Scott

    1896 - 1940

    American writer whose novels include "This Side of Paradise", "The Beautiful and Damned" and "The Great Gatsby."

    George, Henry

    1839 - 1897

    American author of the economic theory of the single tax. He published his theories in his book "Progress and Poverty" (1879).

    Golding, William Gerald

    1911 -

    English novelist and winner of the 1983 Nobel Prize for literature. His first success was "Lord of the Flies" (1954). Other books include "A Moving Target" (1982) and "The Spire" (1964).

    Grimm Brothers

    Grimm, Jakob Ludwig & his brother Wilhelm Karl Grimm

    1785 - 1863 & 1786 - 1859

    Collected and published German fairy stories. Some of the published stories include: "Hansel and Gretel", "Tom Thumb", "Rumpelstiltskin", and "Snow White".

    Hawthorne, Nathaniel

    1804 - 1864

    American writer born at Salem, Massachusetts whose famous works include: "The Scarlet Letter", "The House Of Seven Gables", and the "Tanglewood Tales."

    Hemingway, Ernest

    1899 - 1961

    American author and Nobel Prize winner whose famous works include: "For Whom the Bell Tolls" (1940), and "The Old Man and the Sea" (1952).

    Hugo, Victor

    1802 - 1885

    French novelist and poet whose most famous work is considered to be "Les Miserables".

    Keller, Helen Adams

    1880 - 1968

    American lecturer and writer who overcame great physical handicaps (at less than two years old she was left blind, mute, and deaf). Her first book, "The Story Of My Life" was published in 1902. She was graduated from Radcliffe University in 1904 and her other works include: "Optimism" (1903), "The World I Live in" (1908), and "Let Us Have Faith" (1940).

    King, Stephen

    1947 -

    American author born in Portland, Maine whose books include "Carrie", "The Dead Zone", "The Shining", "Pet Sematary", and others.

    Kipling (Joseph) Rudyard

    1865 - 1936

    English short-story writer, poet, and novelist who was born in Bombay, India and educated in England. He received the 1907 Nobel Prize for literature. His works include "Kim" (1901), "Soldiers Three" (1888), "The Light That Failed" (1890), and "Gunga Din" (1892).

    Machiavelli, Niccolo

    1469 - 1527

    Italian politician and author who was given a government post (New Republican Order) after the Medici rulers in Florence were exiled. In 1512 the Medici rule was restored and he was expelled from the city. His famous book "The Prince" was written for the new ruler of Florence, Lorenzo de' Medici, grandson of Lorenzo the Great.

    Melville, Herman

    1819 - 1891

    American author known for his masterpiece "Moby Dick."

    Mitchell, Margaret

    1900 - 1949

    American author of "Gone With the Wind" (1936).

    Orwell, George

    1903 - 1950

    Pen name of English satirist Eric Blair. Some of his works include "Homage To Catalonia", "Animal Farm", and "Nineteen Eighty-Four" (1949). These works are considered striking satires on totalitarianism.

    Pearle, Norman Vincent

    1898 -

    American Methodist Episcopal minister, writer, radio and television speaker whose written works include "The Power of Positive Thinking" (1952).

    Poe, Edgar Allan

    1809 - 1849

    American author, poet, and literary critic whose first published book was "Tamerlane and Other Poems" (1827). He attended US Military Academy at West Point but was discharged for misconduct. Some of his works included "Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque", "The Raven and Other Poems", And "The Murders In the Rue Morgue."

    Pulitzer, Joseph

    1847 - 1911

    American journalist born in Budapest, Hungary and was the owner of several newspapers that included the Evening Post, New York World, and Saint Louis Dispatch. He established a fund through the School of Journalism at Columbia University, New York, to award outstanding accomplishments in journalism, general literature, and art and music.

    Shaw, George Bernard

    1856 - 1950

    British playwright and critic considered the most influential figure in modern literature. He called the theater "a temple of the ascent of man." Same of his works include "Candida" (1894), "Everybody's Political What's What?" (1944), and "The Apple Cart" (1929).

    Shakespeare, William

    1564 - 1616

    English poet and dramatist during the time of Queen Elizabeth I and King James I and is noted for his excellent ability to grasp human nature. His plays include comedy, tragedy and historical plays.

    COMEDIES:

    A Midsummer Nights Dream (Circa 1596)

    The Merchant of Venice (Circa 1596)

    As You Like It (Circa 1599)

    Twelth Night (Circa 1599)

    The Comedy of Errors (Circa 1592)

    The Taming of the Shrew (Circa 1592)

    Love's Labor's Lost (Circa 1595)

    The Two Gentlemen of Verona (Circa 1594)

    Much Ado about Nothing (Circa 1598)

    The Merry Wives of Windsor (Circa 1600)

    All's Well that ends Well (Circa 1602)

    Measure for Measure (Circa 1604)

    Winter's Tale (Circa 1610)

    The Tempest (Circa 1612)

    TRAGEDIES:

    Romeo and Juliet (Circa 1594)

    Julius Caesar (Circa 1599)

    Hamlet (Circa 1600)

    Macbeth (Circa 1606)

    King Lear (Circa 1605)

    Othello (Circa 1604)

    Titus Andronics (Circa 1593)

    Antony and Cleopatra (Circa 1606)

    Coriolanus (Circa 1607)

    Timon of Athens (Circa 1607)

    HISTORICAL:

    Richard II (Circa 1595)

    Henry IV Part 1 (Circa 1597)

    Richard III (Circa 1592)

    Henry IV Part 2 (Circa 1597)

    Henry V (Circa 1600)

    Henry VI Part 1 (Circa 1623)

    Henry VI Part 2 (Circa 1594)

    Henry VI Part 3 (Circa 1595)

    King John (Circa 1596)

    Henry VII (Circa 1612)

    Steinbeck, John

    1902 - 1968

    American novelist who wrote about the poor workers of the Monterey, California, area whose works include: "Tortilla Flat" (1935), "Of Mice and Men" (1937), Pulitzer Prize Winning "Grapes of Wrath" (1939), "Cannery Row" (1945), "East of Eden" (1952), and "Winter of our Discontent" (1961). Received the 1962 Nobel Peace Prize for literature.

    Stowe, Harriet Elizabeth Beecher

    1811 - 1896

    American novelist best known for her "Uncle Tom's Cabin."

    Swift, Jonathan

    1667 - 1745

    English writer born in Dublin who was famous for his satire. His most famous work was "Gulliver's Travels."

    Thoreau, Henry David

    1817 - 1862

    American writer and naturalist whose works include "Waldon" and "Excursions."

    Verne, Jules

    1828 - 1905

    French author whose imagination predicted many scientific inventions such as the submarine, airplanes, automobile, giant telescopes and space travel. Some of his famous works include "Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea" (1870), "Around the World in Eighty Days" (1876), "A Voyage to the Center of the Earth" (1864), and "From the Earth to the Moon" (1865).

    Webster, Noah

    1758 - 1843

    American scholar and creator of the American Dictionary.

    Wells, Herbert George

    1866 - 1946

    English novelist and historian whose works include "The Time Machine" (1895), "Outline of History", "The Invisible Man", and "War of the Worlds."

    Wiggin, Kate Douglas

    1856 - 1923

    American author and educator who opened the first free kindergarten school in the West (San Francisco 1878). Author of "Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm" (1903).

    Wilde, Oscar

    1854 - 1900

    Irish novelist, poet, and playwright who was a colorful character remembered for his quick wit, long hair, knee pants, and fancy of sunflowers. Some of his works include "The Picture of Dorian Gray", "Salome", "The Importance of Being Earnest", and "The Ballad of Reading Gaol."

    Wright, Richard

    1908 - 1960

    American author born in Mississippi whose work includes "The Color Curtain", "Native Son", and a Guggenheim Fellowship for his "Uncle Tom's Children."

    Arnold, Benedict

    1741 - 1801

    American Revolutionary War General who was promoted to Brigadier General in June, 1776 for his part in General Montgomery's attack on Quebec. In 1780 Arnold devised a plan to surrender West Point to British General Clinton, but his intentions were found out and he fled, eventually becoming a British General.

    Bonaparte, Napoleon

    1769 - 1821

    French General and later Emperor of France who was defeated in the War of Liberation by Austria, Britian, Prussia, Russia, Portugal and Sweden and exiled to Elba. He returned from Elba in an attempt to regain power and was defeated at Waterloo after which he was exiled to Saint Helena where he later died of cancer.

    Bradley, Omar Nelson

    1893 - 1981

    American General during World War II and Commander of the Second Army Corps, the US Ground Forces, and the 12th Army Group. He was named the first permanent chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and is the author of "A Soldier's Story" (1951).

    Bull, Sitting

    1837 - 1890

    American Indian Chief whose childhood name was Jumping Badger but was changed by his father after he killed and scalped his first enemy. He is remembered for his military defeat of General George Custer at Little Big Horn River in Montana.

    Caesar, Julius

    100 - 44 BC

    Roman General during the Gallic Campaigns who, during the Roman Civil War crossed the Rubicon (stream that separates the province of Gaul from Italy) and took Rome with little bloodshed. He was appointed Dictator for one year, Consul for five, and Tribune for life. Caesar was assassinated on March 15, 44 BC.

    Cornwallis, Charles

    1738 - 1805

    British general and statesman who surrendered to George Washington at Yorktown (1781) during the American Revolutionary War assuring a final victory for the colonies. He became Governor-general of India (1786) and Viceroy of Ireland (1798).

    Custer, George Armstrong

    1839 - 1876

    American military officer known by the Indians as "Yellow Hair". He and his entire command were defeated and Little Big Horn, by the Sioux under the command of Sitting Bull.

    Dewey, George

    1837 - 1917

    An American naval Admiral appointed by President McKinley whose fleet destroyed the Spanish Fleet at Manila Bay, Philippines during the Spanish-American War.

    Dreyfus, Alfred

    1859 - 1935

    Accused of selling French military secrets to Germany. He was convicted on false evidence and sentenced to life in prison on Devil's Island. In 1899 he was given a new trial but was again convicted. In 1906 his conviction was annulled and he was set free. The case gained world-wide attention.

    Hale, Nathan

    1755 - 1776

    American patriot during the revolutionary period who was hanged by the British on charges of being a spy, his last words were "I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country."

    Houston, Sam

    1793 - 1863

    American soldier and political leader who led Texas to independence from Mexico through the defeat of Santa Ana in the Battle of San Jacinto.

    Jones, John Paul

    1747 - 1792

    United States naval hero during the US Revolutionary War who is remembered for responding in the face of almost certain defeat "I have not yet begun to fight."

    Lawrence of Arabia

    1888 - 1935

    Thomas Edward Lawrence, British soldier and scholar who aided King Faisal in the Arab war against Turkey. He argued for Arab independence at the Versailles Peace Conference. His stories were told in "The Seven Pillars of Wisdom" (1926) and "Revolt in the Desert" (1927).

    Lee, Robert Edward

    1807 - 1870

    Commander in Chief of the Confederate Army during the US Civil War who surrendered to General Grant (Union Army) April 1865 at Appomattox, Virginia.

    MacArthur, Douglas

    1880 - 1964

    Commander in Chief of the Allied Forces in the southwest Pacific during World War II. He was the first military commander to lead troops under the flag of the United Nations (in Korea).

    Patton, George Smith Jr

    1885 - 1945

    American General and tank commander during World War II. He was born in San Gabriel, California on November 11, 1885 and graduated from the US Military Academy in 1909. In March 1944 Patton assumed command of the Third Army in Britain. He was killed in an auto accident after the war in Heidelberg, Germany, December 21, 1945.

    Perry, Matthew Calbraith

    1794 - 1858

    American naval officer responsible for the treaty that opened Japanese ports to US commerce.

    Perry, Oliver Hazard

    1785 - 1819

    American naval officer during the War of 1812 who defeated the British fleet in a battle off Put-In Bay. He is remembered for saying "We have met the enemy and they are ours."

    Pershing, John Joseph

    1860 - 1948

    American General during World War II who acted as Commander in Chief of the American Expeditionary Forces during World War I. He also served as Chief of Staff from 1921 to 1924.

    Rickenbacker, Edward "Eddie" Vernon

    1890 - 1973

    American aviator who commanded the 94th Aero Pursuit Squadron in World War I. During World War II he was shot down and spent three weeks on a raft in the Pacific Ocean before being rescued. He is the author of "Fighting the Flying Circus" and "Seven Came Through".

    Rommel, Erwin

    1891 - 1944

    German military officer during World War II who commanded a tank division in 1940 during the invasion of France. He is famous for his brilliant tactical maneuvering in North Africa where he was given the nickname "Desert Fox".

    Sherman, William Techumseh

    1820 - 1891

    Union General in the US Civil War who, in the spring of 1864 began his famous march "from Atlanta to the sea". When Grant became President, Sherman became Commanding General of the US Army.

    Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, Duke

    1769 - 1852

    British military leader and statesman called the "iron duke". He defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo.

    Bach, Johann Sebastian

    1685 - 1750

    German musician and composer who is referred to as the "Master of Masters" because his works inspired Beethoven, Mozart, Schumann, etc.

    Beethoven, Ludwig Von

    1770 - 1827

    German musician and composer who was quoted as saying "Music is the only spiritual entrance to a higher world of knowledge." Famous works include his "Fifth" and "Ninth" symphonies and the "Moonlight Sonata".

    Berlin, Irving

    1888 - 1989

    American song-writer whose real name was Israel Baline. He wrote music for Broadway shows and Hollywood musicals. His works include "God Bless America", "Alexander's Ragtime Band", "Blue Sky's", "White Christmas", and "Annie Get Your Gun."

    Brahms, Johannes

    1833 - 1897

    German composer and pianist whose first success was with his performance of "A German Requiem." His four symphonies are considered masterpieces and his "Lullaby" is known throughout the world. Brahms music was the culmination of the age of romanticism.

    Chopin, Frederic Francois

    1810 - 1849

    Polish composer of piano music. He studied music at the Warsaw Conservatory and lived most of his life in Paris until his death at 39 of tuberculosis. One of his most brilliant works was the "Polonaise in A Major".

    Dvorak, Anton

    1841 - 1904

    Czech composer of operas, choral, chamber music and symphonies. Showed an intense interest in both Indian and Negro music as reflected in his fifth symphony entitled "From the New World." Some of his additional works include "Stabat Mater" and "Humoresque."

    Foster, Stephen Collins

    1826 - 1864

    American composer and song-writer whose works include "Camptown Races", "Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair", Beautiful Dreamer", "Oh! Susanna", "Old Folks at Home", and others.

    Gershwin, George

    1898 - 1937

    American composer who pioneered the adaptation of jazz to accepted classic forms. His works include "Rhapsody in Blue" and "Strike up the Band."

    Lennon, John

    1940 - 1980

    English musician and composer and founding member of the singing group "Beatles." Music included: "Help" (1965), "All You Need is Love" (1967), "A Day in the Life" (1967), "Give Peace a Chance" (1969), and "Imagine" (1971). Shot by Mark David Champman on December 8, 1980, in New York City.

    Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus

    1756 - 1791

    Austrian musician and composer who wrote over forty symphonies, twenty-five string quartets, twenty-seven concertos for piano and orchestra, and numerous sonatas in his thirty-five year life.

    A child prodigy, called little "Wolferl", he was playing the piano at three and writing music at four. At age twelve he wrote "La Finta Semplice", his first opera. His works include "The Marriage of Figaro", "Don Giovanni", "The Magic Flute" and his unfinished "Requiem."

    Puccini, Giacomo

    1858 - 1924

    Italian composer of opera whose works include "Manon Lescaut", "La Boheme" and "La Tosca, Madame Butterfly."

    Schubert, Franz

    1797 - 1828

    Famous composer who was born in Vienna and began writing music at the age of thirteen. He composed music for symphonies, operas, chamber music, and works for solo and chorus instruments. His works include "Symphony in C Major", the "Unfinished" in B Minor and songs like "Ave Marie", and "Who is Sylvia."

    Schumann, Robert

    1810 - 1856

    German composer who, between 1830 and 1840 composed pieces almost exclusively for the piano. Some of his works include "Carnaval", "Papillons", and the "Piano Concerto in A Minor."

    Strauss, Johann

    1825 - 1899

    Austrian composer who is often called the "Waltz King." Some of his works include "Beautiful Blue Danube", "One Thousand and One Nights" and "Wine, Women and Song".

    Stravinsky, Igor

    1882 - 1971

    Russian composer who became a U.S. citizen in 1945. His music included symphonies, cantatas, and concertos for violin and piano.

    Tchaikovsky, Peter Ilich

    1840 - 1893

    Russian composer whose works include the fantasy-overture "Romeo and Juliet", "Swan Lake", "Sleeping Beauty" and the "Nutcracker."

    Wagner, (Wilhelm) Richard

    1813 - 1883

    German composer, critic, and conductor whose works include "The Flying Dutchman", and "Lohengrin" which contains the well known "Wedding March."

    Aristotle

    384-322 BC

    Student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great who established a school of philosophy in Athens in the Lyceum. The school was known as the Peripatetic School of Philosophy. Aristotle is considered the founder of natural science.

    Bacon, Francis

    1561-1626

    English statesman, philosopher and jurist who is known for his development of the inductive method of reasoning.

    Descartes, Rene'

    1596-1650

    French scholar and philosopher often called the " father of modern philosophy." Recognized as the inventor of analytical geometry, he is remembered for saying -cogito, ergo sum- ("I think, therefore I exist").

    Dewey, John

    1859-1952

    American philosopher and educator who founded the theory of "immediate empiricism," in which he asserts that: things are what they are as shown by experience and that knowledge itself is a form of experience. His philosophy was one of instrumentalism whereby we learn by doing, and learn best by seeing the significance of what we learn.

    Epicurus

    342-270 BC

    Greek philosopher and founder of the Epicurean school, he developed a system of philosophy that stated "pleasure is the chief good".

    Goethe, Johann Wolfgang Von

    1749-1832

    German philosopher, poet, novelist and dramatist, who is probably best known for his drama of the German people, "Faust." Considered the greatest figure in German literature. The lyrics of his work have been set to music by many great composers to include Schubert and Beethoven. "Sorrows of Weather" was another great work of Goethe.

    Kant, Immanuel

    1724-1804

    German philosopher whose "Critique of Pure Reason" published in 1781, is considered to be his most philosophical work.

    Lao Tzu

    Circa 6th Century BC

    Chinese philosopher and founder of Taoism who is the author of "Tao-Te Ching", an account of his ideas. Tao translated means "The Way".

    Nietzsche, Frederick Wilhelm

    1844-1900

    German philosopher whose philosophy denounced the Christian Faith and its Christian virtues in exchange for his concept of the (Uebermensch) Superman. " The Will to Power" was his guiding principal. Some of his works include "The Birth of Tragedy" and "The Will to Power".

    Nostradamus

    1503-1566

    French physician whose real name was Michael de Notredame. Studied philosophy at Aix and Medicine at Montpelier and is famous for his somewhat mystic prophecies in his rhymed poems (quatrains) that are believed to tell of future events. Published in his book "Centuries", his prophecies remain a source of controversy and commentary today.

    Pascal, Blaise

    1623-1662

    French philosopher and mathematician who believed that absolute truth was obtainable only through divine revelation. Gave the world Pascal's Law which states that "pressure exerted anywhere upon the surface of a liquid enclosed in a vessel, is transmitted undiminished in all directions and acts with equal force upon all equal surfaces, and at right angles to the surfaces".

    Plato

    427-347 BC

    Ancient Greek philosopher who was a devoted friend and student of Socrates. After the death of Socrates, Plato wrote many of his finest dialogues around the character of Socrates. Some of Plato's dialogues include "Euthyphro", "Apology", "Crito", "Phaedo", "Symposium" and "Republic".

    Satre, Jean Paul

    1905-1980

    French writer and philosopher who outlined Aesthetic Existentialism in his "Being and Nothingness". Satre's philosophy centers on how man's free will determines his course and destiny. Satre turned down a 1964 Nobel Prize for literature.

    Socrates

    469?-399 BC

    He is considered the most acclaimed Greek philosopher and was born in Athens. His ideal was self-knowledge and "know thyself" was his maxim. He was condemned to death in 399 BC on charges that he corrupted the youth.

    Spinoza, Baruch

    1632-1677

    Dutch-Jewish philosopher born in Amsterdam whose philosophy was derived from Descartes and who declared that god exists and that his manifestations are two: the world of material things (extension), and thought.

    Voltaire, Jean Francois Marie Arouet

    1694-1778

    French writer of plays, poems, treatises, and philosophical novels whose quest was to fight social injustice, intolerance, and hypocrisy. Some of his works include two satirical novels "Candide" and "Zadig".

    Whitehead, Alfred North

    1861-1947

    English philosopher and mathematician who was a professor of philosophy at Harvard University (1911-1924). Whitehead felt that in order to make sense of things, it was necessary, to see the whole reality. Some of his works include "Adventures of Ideas" and "Process and Reality".

    Browning, Elizabeth Barrett

    1806-1861

    English poet remembered for her "Sonnets from the Portuguese." She married English poet Robert Browning in 1846. Together they moved to Italy, where they lived until her death in 1861. Some of her works include "The Cry of the Children" and "Aurora Leigh."

    Browning, Robert

    1812-1889

    English Victorian poet whose most successful works were his dramatic monologues like "The Ring and the Book." He married English poet Elizabeth Barrett in 1846 and moved to Italy. After her death in 1861 he returned to England.

    Chaucer, Geoffrey

    1340-1400

    English poet and writer known as the "Father of English Poetry." "The Canterbury Tales" is considered to be his most famous work.

    Emerson, Ralph Waldo

    1803-1882

    American philosopher, lecturer, essayist and poet. The cornerstone of his philosophy was self-reliance and individual freedom. His first series of essays included "Self-reliance", "Compensation", and "The Over-soul." Emerson stressed the importance of individual responsibility as well as freedom. At Harvard University, Mr. Emerson delivered a speech focusing on the American scholar that was later referred to as our "Intellectual Declaration of Independence" by Oliver Wendell Holmes. Other works by Emerson include: "Nature", "Each and All" and "The Conduct of Life."

    Frost, Robert

    1874-1963

    An American poet, who was a four-time Pulitzer Prize winner (1924, 1931, 1937, and 1943). He is remembered most for his portrayal of the New England scene. His works include "The Road not Taken," "Mending Wall", "The Death Of The Hired Man" and "Stopping By Woods On A Snowy Evening."

    Holmes, Oliver Wendell

    1809-1894

    American physician, author and poet who received his medical degree in 1836. He later became a professor of anatomy and physiology at Harvard University. Some of his works include: "A Mortal Antipathy," and "The Deacon's Masterpiece."

    Homer

    ? B.C.

    Early Greek poet believed to be the author of "Iliad" and "Odyssey."

    Keats, John

    1795-1821

    English poet during the romantic period in English literature. He suffered from tuberculosis, and moved to Italy with the hope that a climate change would help his condition. He died in Rome, February 23, 1821 at the age of 25. His works include "To Phyche", "To Autumn", "Ode on a Grecian Urn" and "Bright Star."

    Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth

    1807-1882

    American poet whose works included "The Reaper and the Flowers," "Evangeline," "Hiawatha," "Tales of a Wayside Inn, (contains the favorite 'Paul Revere's Ride')," and "The Village Blacksmith."

    Omar Khayyam

    ? 1123 ?

    Persian poet and astronomer known for his poem the "Rubaiyat" in praise of pleasure, love and wine.

    Shelly, Percy Bysshe

    1792-1822

    English poet born in Sussex who was expelled from Oxford University for his "The Necessity of Atheism." He settled in Italy in 1818 and died in a sailing accident in July 1822. His works include "The Cloud", "Ode to Liberty", "The Indian Serenade" and "Adonais".

    Stevenson, Robert Louis

    1850-1894

    Scottish poet and writer whose works include "New Arabian Nights", "Treasure Island" and "Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde".

    Tennyson, Alfred

    1809-1892

    English poet of the Victorian period. He was born in Sumersby Lincolnshire and attended Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1850 he succeeded Wordsworth as Poet Laureate. His works include "The Charge of the Light Brigade", "Idylls of the King", "Ulysses" and many others.

    Whitman, Walt

    1819-1892

    American poet known as the "Poet of Democracy" whose works included "Song of Myself", "Pioneers! O Pioneers" and "Crossing Brooklyn Ferry."

    Augustine, Saint

    354 - 430

    Christian Bishop, theologian, and philosopher who was the first Archbishop of Canterbury. Sent by Pope Gregory I from Rome to lead a group of missionaries to England. As a philosopher he felt that the existence of God could be known by reason.

    Buddha

    Circa 563 BC

    Buddha was the title given to a man named Gautama that means "fully enlightened".

    He searched for the truth that would bring peace to India. Truth was revealed to him one night as he sat beneath the Bodhi-tree. It was revealed to him that all world sorrow was the result of selfishness and that the way to escape from selfishness was through his "Eightfold Path":

    Right BeliefsRight IdealsRight WordsRight DeedsRight Way of Earning One's LivingRight EffortsRight ThinkingRight Meditations

    Buddhists believe that he who is perfect in love, knowledge, enlightenment, self-control, and unselfishness attains "nirvana", the state of mind Buddha attained under the Bodhi-tree.

    Calvin, John

    1509 - 1564

    French theologian and reformer who became dissatisfied with the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church and published "Institutes of the Christian Religion." In 1561 his followers separated from the Lutherans thereby forming the first major division of the Protestant Church.

    Christ, Jesus

    4? BC - 29? AD

    Founder and foundation of Christianity who was born in Bethlehem in Judea. He grew up in Nazareth and was baptized by John the Baptist. Condemned to death by Roman Governor Pontius Pilate.

    Confucius

    551? - 479 BC

    Born in Shantung Province in the state of Lu in Western China and was considered a great and wise teacher. He compiled and edited the "Five Classics" (ancient Chinese Classics) and along with the "Four Books" by his disciples make up the Confucian Bible.

    Eddy, Mary Baker

    1821 - 1910

    Founder of the Christian Science Church who published "Science and Health, with Key to the Scriptures", which is the primary text of Christian Science.

    Graham, Billy

    1918 -

    American Baptist Evangelist who in 1950 organized the Billy Graham Evangelist Association. Graham was also one of the ministers invited by President Nixon to conduct services at the White House. His books include "World Aflame" (1965) and "The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse" (1983).

    Khomeini, Ruhollah

    1900 - 1989

    Religious and political leader of Iran who is known by the Islamic title of Ayatollah. He organized and directed the overthrow of the Shaw in 1979 and directed the handling of the American hostages taken from the U.S. Embassy in November 1979. In 1979 he assumed the role of Fagin (religious guide) and in 1989 called for the killing of British novelist Salman Rushdie for his book "Satanic Verses".

    Knox, John

    1505 - 1572

    Leader in the Protestant Reformation in Scotland.

    Luther, Martin

    1483 - 1546

    Born in Eisleben in German Saxony, was the founder of Protestantism. He published a criticism of the Roman Church known as the "Ninety-Five Theses."

    Note: Lutherans - the name given to Christians who accept the teachings of Martin Luther.

    Mohammed

    570? - 632 AD

    Also known as Mahomet and Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam, who, fearing for his life fled Mecca and traveled to Medina. In 622 he was chosen King of Medina and is founder and foundation of the Moslem religion.

    Moon, Sun Myung

    1920 -

    South Korean businessman and Evangelist who founded the Unification Church in 1954. He moved church headquarters to the US in 1973. "The Divine Principle" is the book of revelation for the church.

    Pope John Paul II

    1920 - 2005

    He was born in Wadowice, Poland, and is the youngest Pope (when appointed in 1978) in 132 years and the first non-Italian pope for 455 years. He survived an assassination attempt on his life in May 1981.

    Smith, Joseph

    1805 - 1844

    Founder of the Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter Day Saints, known as the Mormons, who claimed that spiritual visions he received led him to finding a number of buried gold plates, from which he inscribed, "The Fullness of the Everlasting Gospel."

    Teresa

    1910 -

    Roman Catholic nun born in Yugoslavia (then Ottoman Empire), the daughter of an Albanian grocer. Known as Mother Teresa, she formed the order of the Missionaries of Charity in 1950 and won the Nobel Prize for peace in 1979. She worked extensively with the poor and sick in the slums of Calcutta, India, and is often referred to as the "Saint of the Gutters."

    Xavier, Francis, Saint

    1506 - 1552

    Spanish Jesuit Missionary who conducted missionary work in Japan, India, and Ceylon. He planned to take the gospel to China but died en route. He was canonized in 1622 and in 1927 was named patron of all Catholic missions.

    Ampere, Andre-Marie

    1775-1836

    French physicist and mathematician who proved the identity of magnetism and electricity and developed two basic laws which form the basis of modern electricity:

    Two parallel currents having the same direction attract each other. Two parallel currents having opposite directions repel each other. Avogadro, Amedeo

    1776-1856

    An Italian scientist who developed the theory in 1811 that all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules. His theory led to the ability of determining atomic weights.

    Barton, Clara

    1821-1912

    Founder of the American Red Cross and instrumental in convincing the US government to sign the Geneva Convention which created the International Red Cross in 1864. She also published "History of the Red Cross" and "A Story of the Red Cross."

    Berelson, Bernard

    1912-1979

    American behavioral scientist who created the term "behavioral sciences" and established the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences in Stanford, California.

    Bertrand, Russell

    1872-1970

    English mathematician and philosopher who regarded mathematics as a branch of logic and developed the theory of symbolic logic. His works include "The Principals of Mathematics" (1903) and "Principa Mathematica" (1910-13).

    Bohr, Neils

    1885-1962

    Danish physicist remembered for his work in atomic research. He applied the "quantum" theory to Rutherford's nuclear atom and successfully accounted for the spectrum of hydrogen. He received the 1922 Nobel Prize in Physics.

    Boyle, Robert

    1627-1691

    Irish chemist and physicist remembered for his work in chemistry. In 1622 he developed Boyle's Law which describes the relationship between pressure and volume and predicts the action of a gas.

    Bush, Vannevar

    1890-1974

    American electrical engineer who built (circa 1920's) the first analog computer capable of performing difficult calculus problems in just a few minutes. In 1947 he was appointed head of the Armed Forces Research and Development Board.

    Clausius, Rudolph

    1822-1888

    He developed the second law of thermodynamics, stating that "heat cannot of itself, pass from a colder to a warmer body." Clausius also coined the term "entropy", asserting that the entropy of the universe is increasing.

    Coprenicus, Nicolas

    1473-1543

    Noted sixteenth century Polish astronomer who discovered that the sun, not the earth, was the center of the solar system.

    Cousteau, Jacques-Yves

    1910-

    French under sea explorer, photographer, inventor (diving devices), writer, television producer and film maker. His ship, the Calypso, was a gift from an unnamed Englishman. He founded the Cousteau Society in 1975 to arouse public opinion against pollution. Some of his works include "The Silent World" (1953),<1>"World Without Sun" (1965) and "Dolphins" (1975).

    Crick, Francis & Watson, James

    1916- & 1928-

    American scientists who designed a model illustrating a structure of DNA that would explain gene replication along with a biochemical code capable of transmitting volumes of genetic information.

    Curie, Pierre & Marie

    1859-1906 & 1867-1934

    French scientists and discoverers of the elements of polonium and radium. They married in 1895. Together they discovered radium in 1898 and received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1903. Marie wrote "Treatise on Radioactivity" in 1910 and received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

    Dalton, John

    1766-1844

    English chemist who established the quantitative atomic theory in chemistry in 1803. He published "New Systems of Chemical Philosophy" and his theories include:

    Chemical elements consist of tiny particles called atoms. Atoms of the same element are all alike in size, shape and weight, but are different form atoms of all other elements.When chemical changes take place between two atoms, the atoms remain intact. Atoms cannot be destroyed, divided or created. Darwin, Charles

    1809-1882

    English naturalist who developed the evolutionary theory of man. He was the appointed naturalist on the British ship H.M.S. "Beagle" on its round the world cruise (1831-1836). His works include "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection" (1859), "Voyage of a Naturalist on H.M.S. Beagle" (1860), and "The Decent of Man" (1871).

    Ehrlich, Paul

    1854-1915

    German bacteriologist and physician who founded the use of chemotherapy. He issued the side-chain theory of the chemical mechanism of immunity, and in 1910 developed a remedy for syphilis called "606."

    Einstein, Albert

    1879-1955

    American physicist born in Ulm, Germany who, in 1905 established his theory of relativity in his "Towards the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies". Einstein received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921 and later became a professor at Princeton University's Institute for Advanced Study. He became a US citizen in 1940. His theories are the "Special Theory of Relativity" (1905) and the "General Theory of Relativity" (1915).

    Euclid

    Lived about 300AD

    Greek mathematician respected for his theorems that form the basis of geometry.

    Euler, Leonhard

    1707-1783

    Swiss physicist and mathematician who introduced the study of higher mathematics. His book "Introduction Analysin Infinitorum" focused on a study of calculus, functions, differential equations, trigonometric functions and equations of curves.

    Fahrenheit, Gabriel

    1686-1736

    German physicist who developed the Fahrenheit system of measuring thermal variations. He experimented with mercury instead of alcohol in thermometer tubes.

    Faraday, Michael

    1791-1867

    English physicist and chemist who developed the first dynamo and discovered electromagnetic induction. He also formulated the laws of electrolysis, and coined the terms: anode, cathode, anion, electrode, cation, ion, ionization, electrolysis, and electrolyte.

    Fermi, Enrico

    1901-1954

    Italian-American scientist and inventor who was the first to split the uranium atom which led to his receiving the 1938 Nobel Prize for Physics. He later emigrated to the US and taught physics at Columbia University. At the University of Chicago he conducted the first nuclear chain reaction, and in 1943-1946 at Los Alamos, New Mexico, he worked on the development of the first atomic bomb.

    Flemming, Sir Alexander

    1881-1955

    British bacteriologist noted for the discovery of "penicillin" and the powerful antiseptic "lysozyme." He received the 1945 Nobel Peace Prize for Medicine for his discovery of penicillin.

    Freud, Sigmund

    1856-1939

    Austrian psychiatrist and founder of psychoanalysis who believed that negative or bad feelings pushed into the unconscious part of the mind resulted in mental illness and that the suppressed energy is basically sexual and the result of the patients inability to develop wholesome love relations. Freud's theories generated much opposition and his works include "The Interpretation of Dreams" (1900), "A General Intro to Psychoanalysis" (1910) and "The Ego and the Id" (1923).

    Fuller, Buckminister

    1895 - 1983

    American inventor, engineer, mathematician, designer, and philosopher remembered for his development of the geodesic dome. Some of his books include "Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth" (196"Earth Inc." (1973) and "No More Secondhand God" (1967).

    Galilei, Galileo

    1564 - 1642

    Italian scientist and mathematician who was born in Pisa on February 15, 1564. From 1592 to 1610 he taught mathematics at the University of Padua. He designed the first complete telescope to be used for astronomy in 1609 and his observations of the planets (esp. Venus) helped to reinforce the earlier theories of Nicolaus Copernicus stating that the sun (not the earth) was the center of our solar system. In 1633 he was tried by the Holy Inquisition for his support of the Copernician ideas and placed under arrest until his death January 8, 1642.

    Goodall, Jane

    1934 -

    British ethologist noted for her research of chimpanzees in the Gombe Stream Reserve in Tanzania. Her books include "In the Shadow of Man" (1971) and "Patterns of Behavior" (1986).

    Halley, Edmund

    1656 - 1742

    English astronomer who, based on observations of comets in 1531, 1607 and 1682, concluded that a certain one was one in the same and therefore was able to predict its return in 1758. As per his prediction the comet returned and is now known as Halley's Comet.

    Helmholtz, Herman

    1821 - 1894

    German physicist and physiologist who invented the ophthalmoscope in 1850. In 1871, he became the director of the Physico-Technical Institute at Berlin, and in 1847 announced the principle of the conservation of energy in his book "On the Conservation of Force".

    Herschel, Sir William

    1738 - 1822

    English astronomer who is credited with the discovery of the planet Uranus.

    Hertz, Heinrich

    1857 - 1894

    German physicist who discovered that electromagnetic waves were propagated at the speed of light. This led to the development of wireless signal transmissions.

    Hippocrates

    460? - 377? BC

    Greek physician often called the "father of medicine." He asserted that disease was the result of natural, not supernatural causes.

    Hooke, Robert

    1635 - 1703

    English scientist and inventor who developed the law of elasticity stating: "the stress used to stretch or compress a body is proportional to the strain or change in length, produced". His scientific inventions include the first Gregorian telescope and the marine barometer. Hooke also coined the term "cell" while viewing samples of cork under a microscope.

    Hubble, Edwin

    1889 - 1953

    American astronomer who discovered in 1929 the first observable evidence that supported the theories of an expanding universe. Between 1923 and 1924 he concluded that the Andromeda Nebula was not part of the Milky Way Galaxy.

    Huxley, Thomas Henry

    1825 - 1895

    English writer and scientist in the field of zoology who was a strong supporter of Charles Darwin's theory of organic evolution. He coined the term agnostic to identify his position of being a doubter. His works include "Evolution and Ethics" and "Zoological Evidences as to Man's Place in Nature".

    Jenner, Edward

    1749 - 1823

    English physician who discovered smallpox vaccination.

    Joule, James

    1818 - 1889

    English physicist who studied the relationship between electricity, heat, and mechanical energy. He published the "Calorific Effects of Magneto - Electricity, and the Mechanical Value of Heat".

    Jung, Carl Gustav

    1875 - 1961

    Swiss psychiatrist and psychologist who worked for a few years with Sigmund Freud developing analytical psychology. He coined the terms "introvert" and "extrovert" and his works include "Integration of the Personality", "The Theory of Psychoanalysis" and the "Theory of Synchronicity".

    Kepler, Johannes

    1571 - 1630

    German mathematician and astronomer who developed the fundamental concepts of planetary motion known as "Kepler's Laws":

    Every planet describes an ellipse, the sun occupying one focus.The line joining the center of the sun with the center of a planet sweeps over equal areas in equal times.The squares of the periods of complete revolution round the sun of two planets are proportional to the cubes of their mean distance from the sun. Koch, Robert

    1843 - 1910

    German physician remembered for his work in bacteriology and the discovery of the germ that causes tuberculosis. He also discovered the bacillus that produces Asiatic cholera and a method of inoculation to prevent anthrax. He is also known for developing Koch's Postulates, a procedure that allows for the isolation of micro-organisms.

    Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent

    1743 - 1794

    French chemist who is often called the "father of modern chemistry". He is known for his theory of combustion stating that oxygen supports combustion and respiration.

    Leakey, Louis Seymour Bazett

    1903 - 1972

    Kenyan paleoanthropologist noted for his important contributions to scientific knowledge concerning primate and human evolution in Africa. His books include "Olduvai Gorge" (1951), "White African" (1937) and "Adam's Ancestors" (1934; rev. 1960).

    Libby, Willard F

    1908 - 1980

    American chemist and 1960 Nobel Prize winner in chemistry for his discovery of carbon-14. Carbon-14 is used extensively in establishing the age of archaeological and geological discoveries.

    Lister, Joseph

    1827 - 1912

    English surgeon and founder of antiseptic surgery.

    Maxwell, James Clerk

    1831 - 1879

    Scottish physicist who published the "Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism and Matter and Motion" (1873).

    Mead, Margaret

    1901 - 1978

    American anthropologist recognized for her studies of "childhood" in Samoa, New Guinea, and Bali. Her works include "Coming of Age in Samoa", "People and Places" and "Growing Up in New Guinea".

    Mendel, Gregor Johann

    1822 - 1884

    Austrian monk noted for his work on the problem of inheritance. He conducted extensive breeding experiments with garden peas and formulated the Mendelian Laws of Heredity, the foundation of modern genetics.

    Mendeleev, Dmitri

    1834 - 1907

    Published "Principles of Chemistry" where he created his periodic table of elements arranged in order of increasing atomic weight.

    Muir, John

    1838 - 1914

    American naturalist, conservationist and explorer who in 1867 made a trek (on foot) from Indiana to the Gulf of Mexico, recording his observations in his later to be published "A Thousand Mile Walk to the Gulf" (1916). He discovered Glacier Bay, Alaska and was instrumental in the passing of the Yosemite National Park bill in 1890.

    Napier, John

    1550 - 1617

    Scottish mathematician and religious leader who introduced logarithms as a computational tool.

    Newton, Sir Isaac

    1642 - 1727

    English mathematician best known for his formulation of the laws of motion e.g. "Newton's Laws of Motion". In 1669 he was a professor of mathematics at Cambridge and in 1687 published his "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", often called the "Principia."

    Newton's Laws of Motion:

    An object which is not moving will tend to remain at rest unless some outside force acts upon it (and) an object in motion will continue moving unless acted upon by force.The force required to accelerate an object is proportional to the mass and to the acceleration produced.Every action has an equal reaction. Nightingale, Florence

    1820 - 1910

    English philanthropist born in Florence, Italy who is remembered for her reforms in nursing. She served as a nurse during Crimean War and opened the Nightingale Home for Nurses at Saint Thomas Hospital in London. Her book "Notes on Nursing" (1858) became a training handbook for the nursing profession in the early days.

    Ohm, George Simon

    1787 - 1854

    German physicist who developed "Ohm's Law", stating that the ratio of electromotive force to the current (in an electric circuit) is constant. The constant is then referred to as the resistance of the circuit.

    Oppenheimer, J

    1904 - 1967

    American physicist noted for his work in nuclear physics and the development of atomic energy for the military. He became Chairman of the Advisory Committee of the US Atomic Energy Commission.

    Pasteur, Louis

    1822 - 1895

    French chemist and microbiologist who developed the "pasteurization process." In 1861 he conducted experiments that disproved the concept of "spontaneous generation" and in 1848 conducted experiments that led to the founding of "sterochemistry". From 1862 to 1877 Pasteur conducted studies that advanced the "germ theory of disease".

    Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich

    1849 - 1936

    Russian physiologist and winner of the 1904 Nobel Prize for his research into digestive glands. He is remembered for his experiments with conditioned reflexes on dogs.

    Planck, Max Carl Ernst Ludwig

    1858 - 1947

    German physicist noted for his formulation of the algebraic equation that described "black body radiation." He was awarded the 1918 Nobel Prize in physics for his black body work. In 1900 he announced his theory that light traveled in discontinuous bundles he called "quanta."

    Pythagoras

    Circa 500'S BC

    Greek philosopher and mathematician who is remembered for his Pythagorean Theorem stating that "the square of the hypotenuse of a right - angled triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides".

    Rutherford, Sir Ernest

    1871 - 1937

    British physicist remembered for his work in artificial transmutation of elements, radioactivity and the internal structure of the atom. He received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1908 and was knighted in 1914. Some of his written works include "The Newer Alchemy" (1937) and the "Artificial Transmutation of the Elements" (1933).

    Sakharov, Andrei Dmitriyevich

    1921 - 1990

    Soviet physicist and 1975 winner of the Nobel Peace Prize who contributed to the effort of building the first Soviet hydrogen bomb. In 1968 he wrote an essay entitled "Progress, Peaceful Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom" advocating atomic weapons disarmament. In January 1980 Sakharov was exiled to Gorky for his opposition to Soviet foreign policies. He was released from exile in 1986 under Gorbachev's administration.

    Schweitzer, Albert

    1875 - 1965

    Philosopher, theologian, musician, missionary, and doctor who was born in Alsace and received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1952 for his humanitarian works. He worked extensively as a doctor and missionary in French Equatorial Africa.

    Skinner, Burrhus Frederic

    1904 - 1990

    American psychologist who developed the "skinner box" a device used to measure an animals learning ability under strict controls. He concluded that learning is a basic matter of stimulus and response. His books include "Walden Two" (1948) and "Beyond Freedom and Dignity" (1971).

    Thomson, Sir Joseph John

    1856 - 1940

    British physicist who discovered the first sub-atomic particle called the "electron".

    Adams, Ansel

    1902-1984

    Born in San Francisco, February 20, 1902. He is known for his wilderness work in photography and became a professional musician in 1920. In 1930, after wide acclaim for his 1927 portfolio of pictures, he became a professional photographer. He was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1980. He died in Carmel, Ca., April 22, 1984.

    Botticelli, Sandro

    1444-1510

    An Italian painter of the Florentine school who was interested in design rather than volume, depth and realism. Botticelli assisted in the decoration of the Sistine Chapel he also designed the engravings of the Florentine edition of Dante's Devine Comedy. His works include "Spring" and "The Birth of Venus."

    Christo

    1935-

    Bulgarian born sculptor (living in the US), famous for his "temporary monuments." Christo Javacheff (his full name) studied at the Fine Arts Academy in Sofia. His style, a cross between American and British pop art was called "nouvelle realism." His works include "Running Fence", a piece which consisted of 2 million square feet of fabric run 24 miles across California landscape into the ocean.

    Correggio

    1494-1534

    Alias Antonio Allegri, was a painter of the high Renaissance and was a master of the art of foreshortening (giving figures the appearance of motion). Correggio's works include "Ascension of the Virgin" and "Night" (often called Holy Night).

    Dali, Salvador

    1904-1989

    Spanish painter who is famous for his unique views of a world of fantasy art. He joined the surrealists in Paris in 1929, and came to the US in 1940. His piece titled "The Last Supper" is on display at the National Gallery in Washington D.C.

    Donatello

    1386-1466

    Florentine sculptor, known as Donato di Betto Bardi. Inspired by Greek art, his works include "Zuccone", "David" (one in bronze, one in marble) and a bronze statue of "St. Louis of Toulouse".

    van Gogh, Vincent

    1853-1890

    Dutch painter whose fame came posthumously and his works included "Roulin", "Postman" and "White Roses."

    Matisse, Henri

    1869-1954

    French painter of the modernist group who were referred to as Les Fauves (or wild beasts). Influenced by Persian and Oriental art, his style was one of graceful line and salient design as opposed to realistic proportions.

    Michelangelo, Buonarotti

    1475-1564

    One of the greatest artists of the high Renaissance whose more famous works include "Pieta", "David" "Moses" and the painting of the frescoes on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican.

    Miro, Joan

    1893-1983

    Spanish artist born in Catalonia who was imbued with the revolutionary art theories he picked up while in Paris (1920's). His style was childlike yet sophisticated and his works include "The Village Parades" and "The Hunter".

    Monet, Claude

    1840-1926

    French painter known for his landscapes who was a leader in the Impressionist movement. His works include "Haystack", "Train for Normandy", "Old St. Lazare Station" and "Rouen Cathedral."

    Moses, Anna Mary Robertson

    1860-1961

    American painter born in New York (known as "Grandma Moses") whose early work was colored yarn embroidered on canvas. In her late 70's she switched to oil paint on hardwood and became internationally known and continued painting until her death at age 101.

    Picasso, Pablo Ruiz Y

    1881-1973

    Spanish painter and important figure in modern art whose style was abstract and whose pictures were arrangements of color and form as opposed to direct representations of nature.

    Raphael, Santi

    1483-1520

    One of the great painters of the Italian Renaissance was referred to as "the Divine Painter" due to his many religious portraits, pictures, and frescoes.

    Rembrandt

    1606-1669

    Dutch painter whose full name was Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn who represented the golden age of Dutch art. He began his career as an etcher. His works include "The Wedding Breakfast", "The Anatomy Lecture", "Girl at the Window" and "The Syndics."

    Rockwell, Norman

    1894-1978

    American painter who is remembered for his realistic illustrations on magazine covers including "The Saturday Evening Post", "Ladies Home Journal" and "Woman's Home Companion". His famous paintings include the "Four Freedoms" series.

    Rodin, Francois Auguste

    1840-1917

    French sculptor who developed Impressionism in sculpture. Some of his works include "The Thinker", "The Kiss" and "Adam."

    Rubens, Peter Paul

    1577-1640

    Flemish artist who unified the styles of southern and northern Europe in his style. His works include "Raising the Cross" and "Descent from the Cross" both painted for the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Antwerp, Belgium.

    Vandyke, Sir Anthony

    1599-1641

    Born in Antwerp,Belgium, he had his greatest success in England as a Flemish portrait painter. He was a student of Peter Paul Rubens and his works include "Charles I", "Virgin and Saints" and "Van der Geest".

    da Vinci, Leonardo

    1452-1519

    Artist and inventor whose most famous works include: "The Last Supper" (1495-97) and "Mona Lisa" (1503-1506).

    Wright, Frank Lloyd

    1869-1959

    American architect remembered for his pioneering designs. Wright felt that buildings should assimilate into its environment and be an expression of its function. Introduced the overhanging cantilever slab.

    Appleseed, Johnny

    Circa 1775-1847<1><1>Popular name of John Chapman who was born in Massachusetts. He traveled around the middle west United States planting apples and reading aloud from the bible. He died in Indiana and was buried near Ft. Wayne.

    Houdini, Harry

    1874-1926<1><1>His real name was Ehrich Weiss and he was an American magician, known as a great escape artist. He also wrote "Miracle Mongers and Their Methods" and "A Magician Among the Spirits."

    Post, Emily Price

    1873-1960<1><1>American leading authority on good manners and social etiquette.

    Rogers, Will

    1879-1935<1><1>American humorist and actor who starred in the Ziegfeld Follies and Vaudeville. He was known as the "cowboy philosopher" and was killed in a plane crash with aviator Wiley Post at Point Barrow, Alaska (1935).

    Ruth, George Herman

    1895-1948<1><1>American baseball player known as "Babe Ruth" or "the Bambino" who was formerly the all time home run leader with 714 until Hank Aaron surpassed him with number 715. Ruth was the greatest "hitting" pitcher of all time. During the 1918 world series, the Babe pitched 29 consecutive scoreless innings.

    Santa Claus, AKA Saint Nicolas

    ????-????<1><1>The legend of Santa Claus is centered around the celebration of Pious Saint Nicholas, the youngest bishop in the history of the church. He became the Patron Saint of schoolboys and remained the Saint of children in Holland and Belgium. Though Protestantism looked down on the worship of Saints, the festivities associated with it were assimilated into the Christmas celebration. Santa Claus came to the new world via the Dutch as San Nicholas and became Santy or Santa Claus when spoken rather fast by excited children.

    Terms and Definitions A-D

    "0b04">Addends

    "0b05">Average (Mean)

    "0b06">Cancellation

    "0b07">Common Factors

    "0b08">Composite Numbers

    "0b09">Counting Numbers

    "07c1">Denominator

    "0b0a">Difference

    "0b0b">Dividend

    "0b0c">Divisor

    Terms and Definitions E-L

    "0b0d">Element

    "0b0e">Even Numbers

    "0b0f">Exponent

    "0b10">Factors

    "07c0">Fraction

    "010c">Improper Fraction

    "07c2">Integers

    "010d">Integer Represented as a Fraction

    "05fc">Lowest Common Denominator (LCD)

    "0b11">Lowest Term (Fraction)

    Terms and Definitions M-P

    "0b12">Mean

    "0b13">Member

    "0b14">Minuend

    "010e">Mixed Number

    "0b15">Multiplicand

    "0b16">Multiplier

    "0b17">Natural Numbers

    "07c4">Numerator

    "0b18">Odd numbers

    "0b19">Powers

    "0b1a">Prime Numbers

    "0b1b">Product

    "010f">Proper Fraction

    Terms and Definitions Q-Z

    "0b1c">Quotient

    "072a">Rational Numbers

    "0110">Reciprocal

    "0b1d">Remainder (Difference)

    "0b1e">Set

    "0111">Simple Fraction

    "00bc">Squaring

    "0b1f">Subsets

    "0b20">Subtrahend

    "0689">Sum

    "0b21">Summands

    "0112">Unit Fraction

    "0b22">Whole Numbers

    8 Computing Simple Interest

    Simple interest on an investment occurs when you are paid interest on the investment and you do not receive interest on the interest you have already received. The formula for the final value of an investment (investment) which accrues simple interest at an annual rate of (rate), written as a decimal, for a number of years (years) is

    (final value) = (investment) (1 + (rate) (years))

    EXAMPLE: You deposit $500 into a savings account which pays simple interest at a rate of 5 % per year. What is the final value of your investment after 5 years?

    STEP 1. "05f8">Change the percentage to a decimal.

    5 % = 0.05

    STEP 2. List the values you will plug into the formula.

    investment = $500

    rate = 0.05

    years = 5

    STEP 3. Plug the values into the formula and compute.

    (final value) = (investment) (1 + (rate) (years))

    = $500 (1 + (0.05) (5))

    = $500 (1 + 0.25)

    = $500 1.25

    = $625

    Computing Compound Interest

    Compound interest on an investment occurs when you are paid interest on the investment and also on the interest you have already received. The formula for the final value of an investment (investment) which accrues compound interest at an annual rate of (rate), written as a decimal, compounded (n) times per year for a number of years (years) is

    "0b23"

    EXAMPLE: You $500 into a savings account which pays compound interest at a rate of 6 % per year, compounded monthly. What is the final value of your investment after 5 years?

    STEP 1. Change the "05f8">percentage to a decimal.

    6 % = 0.06

    STEP 2. List the values you will plug into the formula.

    investment = $500

    rate = 0.06

    n = 12 (You get this because there are 12 months in a year.)

    years = 5

    STEP 3. Plug the values into the formula and compute.

    "0b24"

    8   Multiplying Decimals

    EXAMPLE: Multiply the numbers 100.1 and 32.34.

    STEP 1. Multiply the numbers without regard to the decimal placement.

    "0b25"

    STEP 2. Once you have completed the multiplication, add up the number of places to the right side of the decimal points in the numbers you multiplied. There is only one place to the right side of the decimal point in 100.1, and there are two places to the right side of the decimal point in 32.34. This gives a total number of three places.

    STEP 3. Take your answer from Step 1 and count from the right the number of places you found in Step 2, and place the decimal point in that spot.

    "0b26"

    The answer to the multiplication problem is 3237.234.

    Adding Decimals

    EXAMPLE: Add the numbers 23.4, 0.045, and 100.

    STEP 1. Write the numbers in a column so that the decimal points of the numbers line up in a straight line.

    "0b27"

    STEP 2. Add the numbers in columns like you would with regular column addition, writing the decimal point of the answer directly below the other decimal points.

    "0b28"

    Changing Decimals Directly to Percents

    In order to change a decimal directly to a percent, move the decimal point two places to the right and add a percentage sign.

    EXAMPLE: Change the decimal 0.85 to a percent.

    "0b29"

    EXAMPLE: Change the decimal 3 to a percent.

    Even though there is no explicit decimal point to move in this example, the number 3 is the same as the decimal 3.00.

    3 = 3.00 = 300 %

    Changing Decimals to Fractions

    EXAMPLE: Change the decimal 0.52 to an equivalent fraction.

    STEP 1. Count the number of digits to the right of the decimal point. In this example, the number of digits to the right of the decimal point is two.

    STEP 2. The top (numerator) of the equivalent fraction is the original number without the decimal point. The bottom (denominator) of the equivalent fraction is a 1 followed by a string of zeroes; the number of zeroes following the 1 is equal to the number of digits you found in Step 1. In this example, the top is 52 and the bottom is 100 (a 1 followed by two zeroes).

    "0b2a"

    STEP 3. "060a">Simplify the fraction by dividing top and bottom by the largest whole number that divides evenly the top and the bottom. In this example, the largest whole number that divides evenly into both is 4.

    "0b2b"

    EXAMPLE: Change the decimal 0.5962 to an equivalent fraction.

    STEP 1. Count the number of digits to the right of the decimal point. In this example, the number of digits to the right of the decimal point is four.

    STEP 2. The top of the equivalent fraction is 5962. The bottom of the equivalent fraction is 10000 (a 1 followed by four zeroes).

    "0b2c"

    STEP 3. Simplify the fraction.

    "0b2d"

    Changing Fractions to Decimals

    EXAMPLE: Change the following fraction to a decimal.

    "0b2e"

    STEP 1. Change the fraction to a division problem. The top (numerator) becomes the number inside the division symbol. The bottom (denominator) becomes the number outside the division symbol. In this example, the division problem is

    "0b2f"

    STEP 2. Perform the long division as usual. The equivalent decimal is the number above the division symbol.

    "0b30"

    "0b31"

    Changing Fractions to Percents

    EXAMPLE: Change the following fraction, to a percent.

    "0b32"

    STEP 1. In fractions where the (bottom) denominator evenly divides 100, change the fraction to an equivalent fraction with bottom equal to 100. Accomplish this by multiplying both the top and bottom by the same number.

    "0b33"

    STEP 2. Change the new fraction to a percent.

    "0b34"

    Changing Percents Directly to Decimals

    To accomplish this, move the decimal point two places to the left and remove the percentage sign.

    EXAMPLE: Change the percent 12.5 % to a decimal.

    "0b35"

    EXAMPLE: Change the percent 85 % to a decimal.

    Even though there is no explicit decimal point to move in this example, the number 85 is the same as the number 85.0.

    85 % = 85.0 % = .850 = .85

    Changing Percents to Decimals Using Equivalent Fractions

    EXAMPLE: Change the percent 45 % to a decimal using an equivalent fraction.

    STEP 1. Write the percent as a fraction with 100 in the bottom (denominator).

    "0b36"

    STEP 2. "05f6">Change this fraction to a decimal by performing long division. The number above the division symbol is the equivalent decimal.

    "0b37"

    "0b38"

    Dividing Decimals

    EXAMPLE: Perform the indicated division.

    "0b39"

    STEP 1. Make the number to the left of the division symbol (divisor) into a whole number. Accomplish this by moving the decimal point to the right as many spaces as necessary. In this example, you need to move the decimal point two spaces to the right. Thus, 27.58 becomes 2758.

    In order to "keep things fair," you must do the same thing to the number inside the division symbol (dividend). In this example, we must move the decimal two spaces to the right. Thus, 15.2 becomes 1520. Notice that in order to make two spaces for the decimal point to move, you need to add a zero to the end of the number.

    In this example, the division problem is equivalent to

    "0b3a"

    STEP 2. Perform long division as usual.

    "0b3b"

    Note: You can continue to divide out to as many decimal places as you wish, depending on how exact your answer needs to be.

    Finding Percents of Numbers

    EXAMPLE: Find 30 % of 90.

    STEP 1. "05f8">Change the percent to an equivalent decimal. In this example 30 % = .3.

    STEP 2. "05f2">Multiply the decimal you found in Step 1 by the original number. In this example

    "0b3c"

    so your answer is: 30 % of 90 is 27.

    Finding the Lowest Common Denominator (LCD)

    Given two or more "07c0">fractions, the lowest common denominator (LCD) is the smallest "0b22">whole number which is a multiple of each of the "07c1">denominators. Thus, the LCD is exactly the "0605">least common multiple of the denominators.

    EXAMPLE: Compute the LCD of the following fractions.

    "0b3d"

    Then write each fraction as an "0b3e">equivalent fraction whose denominator is equal to the LCD.

    STEP 1. Compute the least common multiple of the denominators. In this case, the least common multiple of 2 and 5 is 10. This is the LCD.

    STEP 2. Change the fractions to equivalent fractions with denominators equal to the LCD. Accomplish this by multiplying the numerator and denominator by the same number.

    "0b3f"

    Subtracting Decimals

    EXAMPLE: Compute the difference 100.1 - 32.34.

    STEP 1. Write the numbers in a column so that the decimal points of the numbers line up in a straight line.

    "0b40"

    STEP 2. Subtract the numbers in columns like you would with regular column subtraction, writing the decimal point of the answer directly below the other decimal points. If there is no digit above a digit you are subtracting, write in the number zero.

    "0b41"

    Adding Fractions with Like Denominators

    EXAMPLE: Add the fractions.

    "0b42"

    STEP 1. Add the tops (numerators) and write the sum over the original bottom (denominator). Do not add the denominators.

    "0b43"

    STEP 2. If necessary, "060a">simplify. If your answer is in the form of an "010c">improper fraction, you may wish to "0600">change it to a mixed number.

    "0b44"

    Adding Fractions with Unlike Denominators

    EXAMPLE: Add the fractions

    "0b45"

    STEP 1. Find the "05fc">lowest common denominator (LCD) of the fractions. In this case, the LCD is 20.

    STEP 2. Change each fraction to an equivalent fraction with bottom (denominators) equal to the LCD. Accomplish this by multiplying the top and bottom by the same whole number.

    "0b46"

    STEP 3. Add the new fractions, which now have like denominators, by adding the numerators and writing the sum over the common denominator. Do not add the denominators. (Note: See "05fe">Adding Fractions with Like Denominators.)

    "0b47"

    STEP 4. If necessary, "060a">simplify. If your answer is in the form of an "010c">improper fraction, you may wish to "0600">change it to a mixed number.

    "0b48"

    Changing Improper Fractions to Mixed Numbers

    To change an "010c">improper fraction to a "010e">mixed number, divide the top (numerator) by the bottom (denominator). The whole number part of the mixed number is the number on top of the division bar. The top of the fractional part is the remainder. The bottom of the fractional part is the original bottom.

    EXAMPLE: Change the following improper fraction to a mixed number.

    "0b49"

    STEP 1. Dividing the top by the bottom yields the following.

    "0b4a"

    STEP 2. In this case, the whole number part of the mixed number is 1. The top of the fractional part of the mixed number is the remainder (4). The bottom of the fractional part is the original denominator (5). Therefore, the answer is

    "0b4b"

    Changing Mixed Numbers to Improper Fractions

    To change a mixed number such as

    "0b4c"

    to an improper fraction, multiply the bottom (denominator) by the whole number part and add the product to the top (numerator). Put the resulting sum over the original bottom.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0b4d"

    Dividing Fractions

    EXAMPLE: Divide the fractions

    "0b4e"

    STEP 1. Change the fraction following the division sign to its reciprocal, and change the division sign to a multiplication sign.

    "0b4f"

    STEP 2. Perform the resulting "0607">multiplication by multiplying the tops (numerators) and multiplying the bottoms (denominators).

    "0b50"

    STEP 3. If necessary, "060a">simplify. If your answer is in the form of an "010c">improper fraction, you may wish to "0600">change it to a mixed number.

    "0b51"

    Factoring Whole Numbers

    You can write any whole number greater than 1 as a product of "0b1a">prime numbers. The numbers listed in the product are called the prime factors of the given number.

    EXAMPLES:

    4 = 2 2

    10 = 2 5

    15 = 3 5

    16 = 2 8

    16 = 2 2 4,

    16 = 2 2 2 2

    Finding the Greatest Common Factor

    When you have two or more whole numbers you can find a whole number that divides evenly into all of them. (Such a number is called a "0b07">common factor of the given numbers). The largest common factor of the given numbers is called the greatest common factor.

    EXAMPLE: Find the greatest common factor of the numbers 45 and 54.

    STEP 1. "0603">Factor the given numbers.

    45 = 3 15

    = 3 3 5

    54 = 2 27

    = 2 3 9

    = 2 3 3 3

    (It is a good idea to write the factors in numerical order.)

    STEP 2. List the prime numbers that appear in each list of factors (common factors). The only prime number that is a factor of both 45 and 54 is 3. The factor of 5 does not appear in the list for 54, and the factor of 2 does not appear in the list for 45. Thus, 2 and 5 are not common factors of 45 and 54.

    Common factors: 3

    STEP 3. Write down each common factor the number of times is appears least in the factorizations. The factor of 3 appears twice in the factorization of 45, and it appears three times in the factorization of 54. The factor of 3 appears least in the factorization of 45, and it appears twice there.

    Common factors listed with least number of appearances: 3, 3

    STEP 4. Multiply the list of factors from Step 3. The resulting product is the greatest common factor.

    Greatest common factor = 3 3 = 9.

    EXAMPLE: Find the greatest common factor of the numbers 36, 48, and 84.

    STEP 1. Factor the given numbers.

    36 = 2 18

    = 2 2 9

    = 2 2 3 3

    48 = 2 24

    = 2 2 12

    = 2 2 2 6

    = 2 2 2 2 3

    84 = 2 42

    = 2 2 21

    = 2 2 3 7

    STEP 2. List the common factors.

    Common factors: 2, 3

    STEP 3. Write down each common factor the number of times is appears least in the factorizations.

    Common factors listed with least number of appearances: 2, 2, 3

    STEP 4. Multiply the list of factors from Step 3.

    Greatest common factor = 2 2 3 = 12

    EXAMPLE: Find the greatest common factor of the numbers 9 and 10.

    STEP 1. Factor the given numbers.

    9 = 3 3

    10 = 2 5

    STEP 2. List the common factors. In this case, there are no common factors. Therefore, the greatest common factor is 1. Greatest common factor = 1

    Least Common Multiple

    When you have two or more "0b22">whole numbers, you can find a larger number that is a multiple of each of the original numbers. The smallest multiple of the original numbers is called the least common multiple.

    EXAMPLE: Find the least common multiple of the numbers 12 and 45.

    STEP 1. "0603">Factor the given numbers.

    12 = 2 6

    = 2 2 3

    45 = 3 15

    = 3 3 5

    (It is a good idea to write the factors in numerical order.)

    STEP 2. List all the prime numbers you get in the factorizations of the given numbers. This is the list of factors.

    Factors: 2, 3, 5

    STEP 3. Write down each factor the number of times it appears most in the given factorizations. The factor of 2 occurs twice in the factorization of 12, and it does not occur in the factorization of 45. The factor of 3 occurs once in the factorization of 12, and it occurs twice in the factorization of 45. The factor of 5 does not occur in the factorization of 12, and it occurs once in the factorization of 45.

    Factors listed with most number of appearances: 2, 2, 3, 3, 5

    STEP 4. Multiply the list of factors from Step 3. The resulting product is the least common multiple of the given numbers.

    Least common multiple = 2 2 3 3 5 = 180

    Mixed Numbers

    "060d">Adding Mixed Numbers with Like Denominators

    "060e">Adding Mixed Numbers with Unlike Denominators

    "060f">Dividing Mixed Numbers

    "0610">Multiplying Mixed Numbers

    "0611">Subtract Mixed Numbers with Like Denominators (Regrouping)

    "0612">Subtract Mixed Numbers with Like Denominators (No Regrouping)

    "0613">Subtract Mixed Numbers with Unlike Denominators (Regrouping)

    "0614">Subtract Mixed Numbers with Unlike Denominators (No Regrouping)

    Multiplying Fractions

    EXAMPLE: Multiply the fractions

    "0b52"

    STEP 1. Multiply the tops (numerators).

    "0b53"

    STEP 2. Multiply the bottoms (denominators).

    "0b54"

    STEP 3. If necessary, "060a">simplify. If your answer is in the form of an "010c">improper fraction, you may wish to "0600">change it to a mixed number. In this example the remaining fraction can not be simplified. Therefore, the answer is

    "0b55"

    Prime Numbers

    A prime number is a whole number greater than 1 that is evenly divisible only by the numbers 1 and itself. The first ten prime numbers are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, and 29. There are many more prime numbers than the ones listed here. (In fact, there are infinitely many!)

    Whole numbers greater than 1 that are not prime are called composite numbers. The first ten composite numbers are 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, and 18.

    Reducing Fractions to Lowest Terms

    See "060a">simplifying fractions.

    Simplifying Fractions

    It is possible to simplify a fraction by dividing top (numerator) and bottom (denominator) by the same whole number.

    EXAMPLE: Simplify the fraction

    "0b56"

    STEP 1. Find the largest whole number that will divide into the top and bottom evenly. This number is called the "0604">greatest common factor of the top and bottom. In this case, the greatest common factor is 6.

    STEP 2. Divide the top and bottom by the greatest common factor.

    "0b57"

    Subtracting Fractions with Like Denominators

    EXAMPLE: Subtract the fractions

    "0b58"

    STEP 1. Subtract the tops (numerators) and write the difference over the original bottom (denominator). Do not add the denominators.

    "0b59"

    STEP 2. If necessary, "060a">simplify. If your answer is in the form of an "010c">improper fraction, you may wish to "0600">change it to a mixed number.

    "0b5a"

    Subtracting Fractions with Unlike Denominators

    EXAMPLE: Subtract the fractions

    "0b5b"

    STEP 1. Find the "05fc">lowest common denominator (LCD) of the fractions. In this case, the LCD is 20.

    STEP 2. Change each fraction to an equivalent fraction with bottom (denominator) equal to the LCD. Accomplish this by multiplying the top and bottom by the same whole number.

    "0b5c"

    STEP 3. "060b">Subtract the new fractions, which now have the same bottom number, by subtracting the tops and writing the difference over the common denominator. Do not subtract the denominators.

    "0b5d"

    STEP 4. If necessary, "060a">simplify. If your answer is in the form of an "010c">improper fraction, you may wish to "0600">change it to a mixed number. In this example the remaining fraction can not be simplified. Therefore the answer is

    "0b5e"

    Adding Mixed Numbers with Like Denominators

    EXAMPLE: Add the mixed numbers

    "0b5f"

    STEP 1. Add the fractional parts by adding the tops (numerators) and writing the sum over the original bottom (denominator). Do not add the denominators. (NOTE: See "05fe">Adding Fractions with Like Denominators.)

    "0b60"

    STEP 2. Add the whole number parts.

    "0b61"

    STEP 3. If necessary, "060a">simplify. In this example, the fraction can not be simplified.

    EXAMPLE: Add the mixed numbers

    "0b62"

    STEP 1. Add the fractional parts by adding the tops and writing the sum over the original bottom.

    "0b63"

    STEP 2. Add the whole number parts.

    "0b64"

    STEP 3. If necessary, simplify. The fractional part can be simplified by dividing the top and bottom by 2.

    "0b65"

    In this example, the fractional part of the mixed number is an "010c">improper fraction. In order for the answer to be a proper mixed number, you need to "0600">change the improper fractional part to a mixed number and add the result to the whole number part.

    "0b66"

    Adding Mixed Numbers with Unlike Denominators

    EXAMPLE: Add the mixed numbers.

    "0b67"

    STEP 1. Compute the "05fc">lowest common denominator (LCD) of the fractional parts, in this example, the LCD is 15.

    STEP 2. Change the given fractions to equivalent fractions, each having bottom (denominator) equal to the LCD. Accomplish this by multiplying the top and bottom of each fraction by the same number.

    "0b68"

    STEP 3. Replace the original mixed numbers in the problem by the equivalent mixed numbers you found in Step 2. This gives an equivalent addition problem.

    "0b69"

    STEP 4. "060d">Add the mixed numbers from Step 3. Accomplish this by adding the tops of the fractional parts and writing the sum over the LCD. (Do not add the bottoms.) Then add the whole number parts.

    "0b6a"

    STEP 5. If necessary, simplify. In this example, the fractional part of the mixed number is an "010c">improper fraction. In order for the answer to be a proper mixed number, you need to "0600">change the improper fraction to a mixed number and add the result to the whole number part.

    "0b6b"

    Dividing Mixed Numbers

    EXAMPLE: Divide the mixed numbers.

    "0b6c"

    STEP 1. Change each "0601">mixed number to an improper fraction. In this example you have

    "0b6d"

    STEP 2. "0602">Divide the improper fractions you found in Step 1. In this example, the division problem becomes

    "0b6e"

    To divide the fractions, replace the second fraction with its reciprocal and change the division symbol to a multiplication symbol.

    "0b6f"

    Now, perform the indicated "0607">multiplication. In this example, you can cancel some factors from the fractions before multiplying in order to make the multiplication easier. Cancel a 2 from the top of the first fraction and from the bottom of the second fraction.

    "0b70"

    Also, cancel a 3 from the bottom of the first fraction and from the top of the second fraction.

    "0b71"

    The given multiplication problem is now

    "0b72"

    STEP 3. If necessary, simplify. In this example, the answer is an "010c">improper fraction and you should "0600">change the improper fraction to a mixed number.

    "0b73"

    Multiplying Mixed Numbers

    EXAMPLE: Multiply the mixed numbers

    "0b74"

    STEP 1. "0601">Change each mixed number to an improper fraction. In this example you have

    "0b75"

    STEP 2. "0607">Multiply the improper fractions you found in Step 1. In this example, the multiplication problem becomes

    "0b76"

    In this example, you can cancel some factors from the fractions before multiplying in order to make the multiplication easier. Cancel a 7 from the top of the first fraction and from the bottom of the second fraction.

    "0b77"

    Also, cancel a 2 from the bottom of the first fraction and from the top of the second fraction.

    "0b78"

    The given multiplication problem is now

    "0b79"

    STEP 3. If necessary, simplify. In this example, the answer 9 is already simplified.

    Subtract Mixed Numbers with Like Denominators (Regrouping)

    When the top (numerator) of the mixed number after the minus sign is larger than the first top you must subtract the mixed numbers by regrouping. "Regrouping" is like "borrowing" in subtraction of whole numbers.

    EXAMPLE: Subtract the mixed numbers.

    "0b7a"

    STEP 1. "Borrow" a 1 from the whole number part of the first mixed number and add it to the fractional part. In this example, you borrow 1 from the 8, and add the 1 to the 1/4.

    "0b7b"

    STEP 2. Change the borrowed 1 to a fraction with bottom equal to the bottom of the fractional part of the mixed number. In this example, we write the 1 as 4/4.

    "0b7c"

    STEP 3. "05fe">Add the two fractions together to get a mixed number that is equivalent to the original first mixed number. The new mixed number will have fractional part whose top is larger than the top of the second mixed number.

    "0b7c"

    STEP 4. Replace the original first mixed number in the subtraction problem with the new mixed number you have found. Because the new mixed number is equivalent to the original mixed number, the new subtraction problem is equivalent to the original problem.

    "0b7d"

    STEP 5. Perform the "0612">subtraction as usual. Accomplish this by subtracting the tops and writing the difference over the original bottom. Do not subtract the denominators. Then subtract the whole number parts.

    "0b7e"

    STEP 6. If necessary, "060a">simplify. In this example, you can divide the top and bottom of the fractional part of the answer by 2.

    "0b7f"

    Subtract Mixed Numbers with Like Denominators (No Regrouping)

    When the top (numerator) of the mixed number after the minus sign is smaller than the first top you can subtract the mixed numbers without regrouping. When the top of the mixed number after the minus sign is larger than the first top you must "0611">subtract the mixed numbers by regrouping.

    EXAMPLE: Subtract the mixed numbers

    "0b80"

    STEP 1. "060b">Subtract the fractional parts by subtracting the tops and writing the difference over the original bottom. Do not subtract the bottoms.

    "0b81"

    STEP 2. Subtract the whole number parts.

    "0b82"

    STEP 3. If necessary, "060a">simplify. In this example, you simplify the fractional part by dividing the top and bottom by 2.

    "0b83"

    Subtract Mixed Numbers with Unlike Denominators (Regrouping)

    When the fractional part of the mixed number after the minus sign is larger than the fractional part of the first mixed number you must subtract the mixed numbers by regrouping. "Regrouping" is like "borrowing" in subtraction of whole numbers. The best way to check which method you need to use is to change the given mixed numbers to equivalent mixed numbers with the same bottom and then compare the tops.

    EXAMPLE: Subtract the mixed numbers.

    "0b84"

    STEP 1. Compute the "05fc">lowest common denominator (LCD) of the fractional parts, in this example, the LCD is 24.

    STEP 2. Change the given fractions to equivalent fractions, each having denominator equal to the LCD. Accomplish this by multiplying the top and bottom of each fraction by the same number.

    "0b85"

    STEP 3. "0611">Subtract mixed numbers with like denominators (regrouping).

    STEP 3a. In this example, begin by borrowing a 1 from the 5, and add the 1 to the fraction.

    "0b86"

    STEP 3b. Change the borrowed 1 to a fraction with bottom equal to the bottom of the fractional part of the mixed number.

    "0b87"

    STEP 3c. Add the two fractions together to get a mixed number that is equivalent to the original first mixed number. The new mixed number will have fractional part whose top is larger than the top of the second mixed number.

    "0b88"

    STEP 3d. Replace the original first mixed number in the subtraction problem with the new mixed number you have found. Because the new mixed number is equivalent to the original mixed number, the new subtraction problem is equivalent to the original problem.

    "0b89"

    STEP 3e. Perform the "0612">subtraction as usual. Accomplish this by subtracting the top and writing the difference over the original bottom. (Do not subtract the denominators.) Then subtract the whole number parts.

    "0b8a"

    STEP 4. If necessary, simplify. In this example, the fraction is already simplified.

    Subtract Mixed Numbers with Unlike Denominators (No Regroup)

    When the fractional part of the mixed number after the minus sign is smaller than the fractional part of the first mixed number you can subtract the mixed numbers without regrouping. When the fractional part of the mixed number after the minus sign is larger than the first fractional part you must "0613">subtract the mixed numbers by regrouping. The best way to check which method you need to use is to change the given mixed numbers to equivalent mixed numbers with the same denominator and then compare the tops.

    EXAMPLE: Subtract the mixed numbers.

    "0b8b"

    STEP 1. Compute the "05fc">lowest common denominator (LCD) of the fractional parts, in this example, the LCD is 10.

    STEP 2. Change the given fractions to equivalent fractions, each having bottom equal to the LCD. Accomplish this by multiplying the top and bottom of each fraction by the same number.

    "0b8c"

    (The lower mixed number already has the correct denominator.)

    STEP 3. Replace the original mixed numbers in the problem by the equivalent mixed numbers you found in Step 2. This gives an equivalent subtraction problem.

    "0b8d"

    STEP 4. "0612">Subtract the mixed numbers with like denominators. Accomplish this by subtracting the numerators of the fractional parts and writing the difference over the LCD. (Do not subtract the denominators.) Then subtract the whole number parts.

    "0b8e"

    STEP 5. If necessary, "060a">simplify. In this example, the fraction is already simplified.

    Writing Large Numbers Using Scientific Notation

    Scientific notation allows you to write very large numbers in a compact form. When you see a number like 125,000,000,000,000 chances are you don't immediately think "one-hundred twenty-five trillion". The first natural thing to do is to count the zeroes. This is the essence of scientific notation.

    There are two components to a number written in scientific notation, a decimal part between 1 and 10, and a power of 10. (The decimal part is called the abscissa. The power is called the exponent.) For example, if we write 125,000,000,000,000 in scientific notation, we get

    125,000,000,000,000 = 1.25 1014

    Here the abscissa is 1.25 and the exponent is 14.

    EXAMPLE: Write the number 93,000,000 in scientific notation.

    STEP 1. Find the power. Count the number of decimal places to the right of the first nonzero digit in the number. This number is the exponent for your power of 10. In this example, the first nonzero digit is 9 and there are seven decimal places to the right of the 9, so the power is 7.

    "0b8f"

    STEP 2. Find the decimal part (abscissa). The decimal part is found by writing a decimal point directly to the right of the first nonzero digit in the number. In this example, the first nonzero digit is the 9 and the decimal part is 9.3.

    STEP 3. Write the number in scientific notation using the exponent you found in Step 1 and the abscissa you found in Step 2.

    93,000,000 = 9.3 109

    Writing Small Numbers Using Scientific Notation

    Scientific notation allows you to write very small numbers in a compact form. When you see a number like 0.000000000125 chances are you don't immediately think "one-hundred twenty-five trillionths". The first natural thing to do is to count the zeroes. This is the essence of scientific notation.

    There are two components to a number written in scientific notation, a decimal part between 1 and 10, and a power of 10. (The decimal part is called the abscissa. The power is called the exponent.) For example, if we write 0.000000000125 in scientific notation, we get

    0.000000000125 = 1.25 10-10

    Here the abscissa is 1.25 and the exponent is -10.

    EXAMPLE: Write the number 0.00000093 in scientific notation.

    STEP 1. Find the power. Count the number of decimal places to the right of the decimal point, up to and including the first nonzero digit in the number. This number is the negative of the exponent for your power of 10. In this example, the first nonzero digit is 9 and there are seven decimal places to the right of the decimal point, up to and including the 9, so the power is -7.

    "0b90"

    STEP 2. Find the decimal part (abscissa). The decimal part is found by writing a decimal point directly to the right of the first nonzero digit in the number. In this example, the first nonzero digit is the 9 and the decimal part is 9.3.

    STEP 3. Write the number in scientific notation using the power you found in Step 1 and the decimal part you found in Step 2. -7

    0.00000093 = 9.3 10-7

    Adding Numbers with Opposite Signs

    To add two numbers with opposite signs, subtract the "0758">absolute values of the numbers and give the resulting difference the same sign as the number with larger absolute value.

    EXAMPLE: <1>Add the numbers (-5) + (6). <1>The absolute values of the numbers in the addition problem are 5 and 6. The number with larger absolute value is 6, which has a positive sign. Therefore, the answer will be positive. <1>The sum is <1>(-5) + (6) = 6 - 5 = 1

    EXAMPLE: <1>Add the numbers (5) + (-6). <1>The absolute values of the numbers in the addition problem are 5 and 6. The number with larger absolute value is 6, which has a negative sign. Therefore, the answer will be negative. <1>The sum is <1>(5) + (-6) = -(6 - 5) = -1

    Adding Numbers with the Same Sign

    To add two numbers with the same sign, add the "0758">absolute values and give the resulting sum the same sign as the original numbers.

    EXAMPLE: <1>Add the numbers (-5) + (-6). <1>The absolute values of the numbers in the addition problem are 5 and 6. <1>Therefore, the sum is <1>(-5) + (-6) = -(5 + 6) = -11

    Dividing Numbers with Opposite Signs

    To divide two numbers with opposite signs, divide the "0758">absolute values and write a negative sign in front of the result.

    EXAMPLE: <1>Divide the numbers (-35) (7). <1>The absolute values of the numbers in the division problem are 35 and 7. <1>Therefore, the quotient is <1>(-35) (7) = -(35 7) = -5

    Dividing Numbers with the Same Sign

    To divide two numbers with the same sign, divide the "0758">absolute values.

    EXAMPLE: <1>Divide the numbers (-30) (-5). <1>The absolute values of the numbers in the division problem are 30 and 5. <1>Therefore, the quotient is <1>(-30) (-5) = 30 5 = 6

    Multiplying Numbers with Opposite Signs

    To multiply two numbers with opposite signs, multiply the "0758">absolute values and write a negative sign in front of the result.

    EXAMPLE: <1>Multiply the numbers (-5) (6). <1>The absolute values of the numbers in the multiplication problem are 5 and 6. <1>Therefore, the product is <1>(-5) (6) = -(5 6) = -30

    Multiplying Numbers with the Same Sign

    To multiply two numbers with the same sign, multiply the "0758">absolute values.

    EXAMPLE: <1>Multiply the numbers (-5) (-6). <1>The absolute values of the numbers in the multiplication problem are 5 and 6. <1>Therefore, the product is <1>(-5) (-6) = 5 6 = 30

    Subtracting Numbers with Opposite Signs

    To subtract two numbers with opposite signs, change the subtraction symbol to an addition symbol and change the sign of the second number. Then perform the addition. (Note: See Adding Numbers with the Same Sign.)

    EXAMPLE: <1>Subtract the numbers (-4) - (7). Changing the subtraction symbol to an addition symbol and changing the sign of the second number gives the following equivalent addition problem. <1>(-4) - (7) = (-4) + (-7) = -(4 + 7) = -11

    Subtracting Numbers with the Same Sign

    To subtract two numbers with the same sign, change the subtraction symbol to an addition symbol and change the sign of the second number. Then perform the addition. (Note: See "0617">Adding Numbers with Opposite Signs.)

    EXAMPLE: <1>Subtract the numbers (-4) - (-7). <1>Changing the subtraction symbol to an addition symbol and changing the sign of the second number gives the following equivalent addition problem. <1>(-4) - (-7) = (-4) + (7) = 7 - 4 = 3

    8(H(pp    X   Algebra Terms and Definitions A-B

    "0758">Absolute Value

    "0b91">Additive Identity

    "0b92">Additive Inverse

    "0b93">Algebraic Expression

    "0b94">Axiom

    "0b95">Axis

    "0b96">Base

    "0b97">Between

    "0b98">Binomial

    Algebra Terms and Definitions C-D

    "0b06">Cancel

    "0b99">Cartesian Plane

    "0b9a">Cartesian Product

    "0b9b">Closed

    "0b9c">Coefficient

    "075c">Complement

    "010b">Complex Fraction

    "0b9d">Complex Numbers

    "0b9e">Component

    "0b9f">Connective

    "0ba0">Constant

    "0ba1">Coordinate

    "071c">Coordinate Plane

    "0ba2">Cube

    "0ba3">Cube Root

    "0ba4">Cubic Equation

    "0ba5">Cubic Function

    "0ba6">Cubic Inequality

    "0ba7">Cubic Polynomial

    "0ba8">Degree

    "07c1">Denominator

    "0b0a">Difference

    "0ba9">Discriminant

    "0b0b">Dividend

    "0b0c">Divisor

    "0baa">Domain

    Algebra Terms and Definitions E-G

    "0bab">Element

    "0bac">Endpoints

    "0bad">Equal

    "0bae">Equation

    "0b3e">Equivalent

    "0b0f">Exponent

    "0baf">Exponential Expression

    "0b10">Factor

    "07c0">Fraction

    "0bb0">Function

    "0bb1">Graph

    "0bb2">Greater Than

    Algebra Terms and Definitions H-L

    "0762">Half Plane

    "0bb3">Identity

    "0bb4">Imaginary Numbers

    "0bb5">Inequality

    "07c2">Integer

    "0bb6">Intercept

    "0bb7">Intersection

    "0bb8">Interval

    "0bb9">Inverse

    "0bba">Irrational Numbers

    "0bbb">Less Than

    "0bbc">Like Terms

    "0bbd">Linear Equation

    "0bbe">Linear Function

    Algebra Terms and Definitions M-N

    "0b13">Member

    "0b14">Minuend

    "0bbf">Monomial

    "0bc0">Multiplicative Identity

    "0bc1">Multiplicative Inverse

    "0b17">Natural Number

    "0bc2">Nonnegative

    "0bc3">Number Line

    "0bc4">Numeral

    "07c4">Numerator

    "0bc5">Numerical Expression

    Algebra Terms and Definitions O-P

    "0bc6">Open

    "0bc7">Open Sentence

    "0bc8">Operand

    "0bc9">Operation

    "0bca">Operational Symbols

    "0bcb">Order of Operations

    "0bcc">Ordered Pair

    "0bcd">Parabola

    "0bce">Pi ()

    "0bcf">Placeholder

    "0bd0">Polynomial

    "0b1b">Product

    Algebra Terms and Definitions Q-R

    "0bd1">Quadratic Equation

    "0bd2">Quadratic Formula

    "0bd3">Quadratic Function

    "0bd4">Quadratic Inequality

    "0bd5">Quadratic Polynomial

    "0b1c">Quotient

    "0bd6">Quotient Number

    "0bd7">Radical Sign

    "0bd8">Range

    "07be">Rational Expression

    "072a">Rational Number

    "0688">Real Numbers

    "0110">Reciprocal

    "0bd9">Relation

    "0bda">Replacement Set

    "0bdb">Root of a Polynomial

    Algebra Terms and Definitions S-T

    "0bdc">Sentence

    "0b1e">Set

    "0bdd">Similar Terms

    "0bde">Solution Set

    "0bdf">Square

    "07ba">Square Root

    "0be0">Statement

    "0be1">Subset

    "0b20">Subtrahend

    "0689">Sum

    "068a">Term

    "0be2">Trinomial

    Algebra Terms and Definitions U-Z

    "0be3">Union

    "0be4">Universe

    "0be5">Value

    "0be6">Variable

    "0b22">Whole Number

    "0be7">Zero of a Polynomial

    Additive Identity

    There exists a "0688">real number "0" such that X + 0 = X for every real number X. The number "0" is called the additive identity.

    Additive Inverses

    For every "0688">real number "X" there is a unique real number "-X" such that X + (-X) = 0. The number "-X" is called the additive inverse of X.

    Associative Law of Addition

    For any "0688">real numbers A, B and C the "0689">sums (A + B) + C and A + (B + C) give the same result. That is, (A + B) + C = A + (B + C).

    EXAMPLE:

    (2 + 3) + 4 = 5 + 4 = 9

    2 + (3 + 4) = 2 + 7 = 9

    EXAMPLE:

    4.1 + (3.2 + ) = (4.1 + 3.2) + = 7.3 +

    Associative Law of Multiplication

    For any "0688">real numbers A, B and C the "0b1b">products (A B) C and A (B C) give the same result. That is, (A B) C = A (B C).

    EXAMPLE:

    (2 3) 4 = 6 4 = 24

    2 (3 4) = 2 12 = 24

    EXAMPLE:

    4.1 (3.2 ) = (4.1 3.2) = 13.12

    Closure Law of Addition

    The "0689">sum of two "0688">real numbers is always a real number.

    EXAMPLE: 3 + is a real number.

    Closure Law of Multiplication

    The product of two real numbers is always a real number.

    EXAMPLE: 3 is a real number.

    Commutative Law of Addition

    For any "0688">real numbers A and B the "0689">sums A + B and B + A give the same result. That is, A + B = B + A.

    EXAMPLE:

    3 + 5 = 8

    5 + 3 = 8

    EXAMPLE:

    2 + = + 2

    Commutative Law of Multiplication

    For any "0688">real numbers A and B the "0b1b">products A B and B A give the same result. That is, A B = B A.

    EXAMPLE:

    3 5 = 15

    5 3 = 15

    EXAMPLE:

    2 = 2

    Distributive Law for Multiplication and Addition

    The distributive law dictates the interaction of multiplication and addition. It says the following: For "0688">all real numbers A, B and C, A (B + C) = A B + A C.

    Sometimes we say that we "multiply through the parentheses by A."

    EXAMPLE:

    3 (5 + 7) = 3 (12)= 36

    3 5 + 3 7 = 15 + 21 = 36

    Distributive Law for Multiplication and Subtraction

    The distributive law dictates the interaction of multiplication and subtraction. It says the following:

    For all "0688">real numbers A, B and C, A (B - C) = A B - A C.

    Sometimes we say that we "multiply through the parentheses by A."

    EXAMPLE:

    3 (5 - 2) = 3 (3)= 9

    3 5 - 3 2 = 15 - 6 = 9

    Multiplicative Identity

    There exists a "0688">real number "1" such that X 1 = X for every real number X. The number "1" is called the multiplicative identity.

    Multiplicative Inverses

    For every nonzero "0688">real number X there is a unique real number

    "0be8"

    such that

    "0be9"

    The number

    "0be8"

    is called the multiplicative inverse <1>of X.

    Note that the number 0 does not have a multiplicative inverse. That is, there is no real number 1/0. This is what is meant by the statement, "You can not divide by zero". To see why the number "0" does not have a multiplicative inverse, suppose that the real number A acted as a multiplicative inverse for 0. Then, by definition of the multiplicative inverse 0 A = 1 . The "0638">zero law tells us that 0 A = 0. Therefore, we see that 1 = 0 A = 0 so that 1 = 0. This is, of course, an absurd conclusion because 1 represents something and 0 represents nothing, so they can not be equal.

    Zero Law

    For every "0688">real number A, A 0 = 0.

    EXAMPLE:

    0 = 0

    Adding Expressions with Like Signs

    To add two expressions with like signs, add the expressions without the signs and write the original sign in front of the sum.

    EXAMPLE: Add the expressions (-A) + (-B).

    (-A) + (-B) = -(A + B)

    Adding Expressions with Opposite Signs

    To add two expressions with opposite signs, change the addition problem to a subtraction problem by writing the term with positive sign first and subtracting the term with negative sign.

    EXAMPLE: Add the expressions A + (-B).

    The expression with positive sign is A, and the expression with negative sign is -B. Thus, the equivalent subtraction problem is

    A + (-B) = A - B

    EXAMPLE: Add the expressions (-A) + B.

    The expression with positive sign is B, and the expression with negative sign is -A. Thus, the equivalent subtraction problem is

    (-A) + B = B + (-A) = B -A.

    Adding Rational Expressions (Fractions)

    EXAMPLE: Add the fractions

    "0bea"

    The fractions have the same denominator (bottom), so you need only add the numerators (tops), and write the resulting sum over the common bottom. (Do not add the denominator.)

    "0beb"

    EXAMPLE: Add the fractions

    "0bec"

    STEP 1. The fractions do not have the same bottom, so you need to find a common denominator. The common denominator is an expression which is divisible by both of the original denominators. In this example, the common denominator is C D.

    STEP 2. Change the given fractions to equivalent fractions whose denominator is the common denominator you found in Step 1. Accomplish this by multiplying the numerator and denominator of each fraction by the same expression.

    "0bed"

    STEP 3. Add the equivalent fractions you found in Step 2. Accomplish this by adding the numerators and writing the resulting sum over the common denominator. (Do not add the denominators.)

    "0bee"

    SUMMARY: In order to find the sum of two rational expressions (fractions), you must first find a common denominator for the fractions, change the given fractions to equivalent fractions with denominator equal to the common denominator, add the numerators, and write the resulting sum over the common denominator. (Do not add the denominators.)

    Changing Fractions to Equivalent Rational Expressions

    The value of a rational expression (fraction) is unchanged if the numerator and denominator are multiplied or divided by the same nonzero expression.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0bef"

    EXAMPLE:

    "0bf0"

    Dividing Expressions with Like Signs

    To divide two expressions with like signs, divide the expressions without the signs. The answer to the division problem has positive sign.

    EXAMPLE: Divide the expressions (-A) (-B).

    The quotient of the negative expressions is the same as the quotient of the expressions without the negative signs.

    (-A) (-B) = A B

    Dividing Expressions with Opposite Signs

    To divide two expressions with opposite signs, divide the expressions without the signs. Then write a negative sign before the result.

    EXAMPLE: Divide the expressions (-A) B.

    (-A) B = -(A B)

    EXAMPLE: Divide the expressions A (-B).

    A (-B) = -(A B)

    Dividing Rational Expressions (Fractions)

    EXAMPLE: Divide the rational expressions.

    "0bf1"

    Step 1. Replace the second fraction with its reciprocal and replace the division symbol with a multiplication symbol.

    "0bf2"

    STEP 2. Multiply the numerators (tops).

    "0bf3"

    STEP 3. Multiply the denominators (bottoms).

    "0bf4"

    STEP 4. If necessary simplify. This expression can not be simplified further.

    EXAMPLE: Divide the rational expressions.

    "0bf5"

    Step 1. Replace the second fraction with its reciprocal and replace the division symbol with a multiplication symbol.

    "0bf6"

    STEP 2. In this example, you can cancel some factors from the fractions before multiplying in order to make the multiplication easier. Cancel an A from the top of the first fraction and from the bottom of the second fraction.

    "0bf7"

    The given multiplication problem is now

    "0bf8"

    SUMMARY: In order to find the quotient of two rational expressions (fractions) replace the second fraction with its reciprocal and replace the division symbol with a multiplication symbol. Then perform the resulting multiplication. (Note: See"0642"> Multiplying Rational Expressions)

    Multiplying Expressions with Like Signs

    To multiply two expressions with like signs, multiply the expressions without the signs. The answer to the multiplication problem has positive sign.

    EXAMPLE: Multiply the expressions (-A) (-B).

    The product of the negative expressions is the same as the product of the expressions without the negative signs.

    (-A) (-B) = A B

    Multiplying Expressions with Opposite Signs

    To multiply two expressions with opposite signs, multiply the expressions without the signs. Then write a negative sign before the result.

    EXAMPLE: Multiply the expressions (-A) B.

    (-A) B = -(A B)

    EXAMPLE: Multiply the expressions A (-B).

    A (-B) = -(A B)

    Multiplying Rational Expressions (Fractions)

    EXAMPLE: Multiply the rational expressions.

    "0bf9"

    STEP 1. Multiply the numerators (tops).

    "0bfa"

    STEP 2. Multiply the denominators (bottoms).

    "0bfb"

    STEP 3. If necessary simplify. This expression can not be simplified further.

    EXAMPLE: Multiply the rational expressions.

    "0bfc"

    In this example, you can cancel some factors from the fractions before multiplying in order to make the multiplication easier. Cancel a B from the bottom of the first fraction and from the top of the second fraction.

    "0bfd"

    The given multiplication problem is now

    "0bfe"

    SUMMARY: In order to find the product of two rational expressions (fractions) multiply the tops to get the numerator of the answer. Then multiply the bottoms to get the denominator of the answer. Then simplify if necessary.

    Subtracting Expressions with Like Signs

    If both expressions have negative sign, change the sign of the second expression and change the subtraction symbol to an addition symbol. Then add the expressions by subtracting the first expression from the second. (Note: See "063a">Adding Expressions with Opposite Signs.)

    EXAMPLE: Subtract the expressions (-A) - (-B).

    STEP 1. Change the sign of the second expression and change the subtraction symbol to an addition symbol.

    (-A) - (-B) = (-A) + B

    STEP 2. Add the expressions by subtracting the first expression from the second.

    (-A) + B = B+ (-A) = B - A

    Subtracting Expressions with Opposite Signs

    To subtract two expressions with different signs, change the sign of the second expression and change the subtraction symbol to an addition symbol. Then add the expressions (Note: See "0639">Adding Expressions with Like Signs.)

    EXAMPLE: Subtract the expressions A - (-B).

    Change the sign of the second expression and change the subtraction symbol to an addition symbol.

    A - (-B) = A + B

    EXAMPLE: Subtract the expressions (-A) - B.

    STEP 1. Change the sign of the second expression and change the subtraction symbol to an addition symbol.

    (-A) - B = (-A) + (-B)

    STEP 2. Add the expressions by adding the terms without the negative signs, and writing a negative sign before the result. (Note: See "0639">Adding Expressions with Like Signs.)

    (-A) + (-B) = -(A + B)

    Subtracting Rational Expressions (Fractions)

    EXAMPLE: Subtract the rational expressions

    "0bff"

    The fractions have the same denominator (bottom), so you need only subtract the numerators (tops), and write the resulting difference over the common bottom. (Do not subtract the denominators.)

    "0c00"

    EXAMPLE: Subtract the rational expressions

    "0c01"

    STEP 1. The fractions do not have the same bottom, so you need to find a common denominator (bottom). The common denominator is an expression which is divisible by both of the original denominators. In this example, the common denominator is C D.

    STEP 2. Change the given fractions to equivalent fractions whose bottom is the common denominator you found in Step 1. Accomplish this by multiplying the top and top of each fraction by the same expression.

    "0c02"

    STEP 3. Subtract the equivalent fractions you found in Step 2. Accomplish this by subtracting the tops and writing the resulting difference over the common bottoms. (Do not subtract the denominators.)

    "0c03"

    SUMMARY: In order to find the difference of two rational expressions (fractions), you must first find a common denominator (bottom) for the fractions, change the given fractions to equivalent fractions with denominator equal to the common denominator, subtract the numerators (tops), and write the resulting difference over the common bottom. (Do not subtract the denominators.)

    Equations

    P-1. (Reflexive Law) A = A.

    P-2. (Transitive Law) If A = B and B = C, then A = C.

    P-3. (Symmetric Law) If A = B, then B = A.

    P-4. (Substitution Principle) If A = B, then A may be replaced by B in any sentence without affecting the truth of the sentence.

    P-5. If A = B, then A + C = B + C.

    P-6. If A = B, then AC = BC.

    Inequalities

    P-1. When both sides of an inequality are multiplied by the same positive number, the products are unequal in the same order. In other words, if c is a positive "0688">real number, then

    If a b then ac bc.If a > b then ac > bc.If a < b then ac < bc.

    P-2. When both sides of an inequality are multiplied by the same negative number, the products are unequal in the opposite order. In other words, if c is a negative real number, then

    If a b then ac bc.If a > b then ac < bc.If a < b then ac > bc.

    P-3. When both sides of an inequality are divided by the same positive number, the quotients are unequal in the same order. In other words, if c is a positive real number, then

    If a b then a c b c.If a > b then a c > b c.If a < b then a c < b c.

    P-4. When both sides of an inequality are divided by the same negative number, the quotients are unequal in the opposite order. In other words, if c is a negative real number, then

    If a b then a c b c.If a > b then a c < b c.If a < b then a c > b c.

    P-5. When a real number is added to both sides of an inequality, the sums are unequal in the same order. In other words, if c is a real number, then

    If a b then a + c b + c.If a > b then a + c > b + c.If a < b then a + c < b + c.

    P-6. When a "0688">real number is subtracted from both sides of an inequality, the differences are unequal in the same order. In other words, if c is a real number, then

    If a b then a - c b - c.If a > b then a - c > b - c.If a < b then a - c < b - c.

    P-7. When unequal quantities are added to unequal quantities in the same order, the sums are unequal in the same order. In other words,

    If a < b and c < d, then a + c < b + d.If a > b and c > d, then a + c > b + d.

    P-8. When unequal quantities are subtracted from equal quantities, the difference is unequal in the reverse order. In other words, if c is a real number, then

    If a b then c - a c - b.If a > b then c - a < c - b.If a < b then c - a > c - b.

    P-9. A "0689">sum of positive quantities is greater than each of its "068a">terms.

    P-10. If a < b and b < c, then a < c.

    P-11. If a > b and b > c, then a > c.

    P-12. If a < b then b > a.

    P-13. (Trichotomy Postulate) Given "0688">real numbers a and b, exactly one of the following inequalities holds. a = b, a < b or a > b

    P-14. If a + b = c and a > 0, then c > b.

    Exponents

    P-1. xm xn = xm+n.

    P-2. xm / xn = xm-n.

    P-3. (xm)n = xmn.

    P-4. (xy)m = xm ym.

    P-5. (x/y)m=xm / ym.

    P-6. If x is nonzero, then x0 = 1.

    P-7. x1 = x.

    P-8. If x is nonzero, then x-m = 1 / xm.

    P-9. 1m = 1.

    Angular Measure of a Major Arc

    Given a "0662">major arc of a circle, the angular measure of the arc is 360 minus the measure of the "064e">central angle formed by the "0657">endpoints of the arc.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c04"

    Angular Measure of a Minor Arc

    Given a "0664">minor arc of a circle, then angular measure of the arc is the measure of the "064e">central angle formed by the "0657">endpoints of the arc.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c05"

    Angular Measure of a Sector

    Given a "0669">sector of a circle, the angular measure of the given sector is the "0649">angular measure of the arc which defines the sector.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c06"

    Arc

    An arc of a given circle is a curved portion of the circle. Note that any two distinct points of a given circle determine two arcs. In order to distinguish between these two arcs, we name a specific arc using three points. If A, B and C are three distinct points on the given circle, the arc ABC consists of all points of the circle which are on the same side of the line AC as the point B.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c07"

    Center

    The center of a circle is the fixed point in the same plane as the given circle which has the same distance to every point of the given circle.

    "0c08"

    Central Angle

    Given a circle, an angle is a central angle of the given circle if the vertex of the angle is the "064d">center of the given circle.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c09"

    Chord

    A chord of a given circle is a "073b">line segment whose "0c0a">endpoints lie on the given circle.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c0b"

    Circle

    A circle is the "0676">locus of all points in a given plane that have the same distance from a fixed point in the given plane.

    "0c0c"

    Circumference

    The circumference of a given circle is the distance around the circle.

    Circumscribed

    1. Given a polygon and a circle, the circle is circumscribed by the polygon if every side of the given polygon is "066e">tangent to the circle.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c0d"

    2. Given a polygon and a circle, the polygon is circumscribed by the circle if every vertex of the polygon lies on the circle.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c0e"

    Common Tangent Line

    Given two circles in the same plane, a common tangent line to the given circles is a line that is "066e">tangent to each circle.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c0f"

    Concentric

    Two circles are concentric if they have the same "064d">center.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c10"

    Congruent

    1. Two "064c">arcs of a given circle are congruent if their angular measures are equal. (Note: See "064a">Angular Measure of a Minor Arc and "0649">Angular Measure of a Major Arc.)

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c11"

    2. Two circles are congruent if they have the same "0667">radius.

    Diameter

    1. A diameter of a given circle is any "064f">chord that passes through the "064d">center of the circle.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c12"

    2. The diameter of a given circle is the length of any diameter.

    Endpoints of an Arc

    The endpoints of an "064c">arc on a given circle are the points which determine the boundary of the arc.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c13"

    Exterior

    The exterior of a given circle is the set of all points whose distance from the "064d">center of the circle is greater than the radius of the circle.

    "0c14"

    External Common Tangent Line

    Given two circles in the same plane, an external common tangent line is a "0653">common tangent line to the given circles which does not intersect the "073b">line segment connecting the "064d">centers of the given circles.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c15"

    External Portion of a Segment of a Secant

    Given a "066b">segment of a secant of a circle, the external portion of the given segment is the set of points of the segment which lie in the "0658">exterior of the circle.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c16"

    Externally Tangent Circles

    Given two circles that are "066e">tangent, the given circles are externally tangent if they lie on opposite sides of their "0653">common tangent line.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c17"

    Inscribed

    1. Given a polygon and a circle, the circle is inscribed in the polygon if every side of the given polygon is "066e">tangent to the circle.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c18"

    2. Given a polygon and a circle, the polygon is inscribed in the circle if every vertex of the polygon lies on the circle.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c0e"

    Inscribed Angle

    An inscribed angle of a given circle is an angle formed by two "064f">chords of the circle that share a common endpoint.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c19"

    Intercepted Arc

    Given an "065d">inscribed angle of a circle, the intercepted arc of the given inscribed angle is the "064c">arc whose "0657">endpoints are the non-vertex points where the angle intersects the circle and which lies in the interior of the given angle.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c1a"

    Interior

    The interior of a given circle is the set of all points whose distance from the "064d">center of the circle is less than the radius of the circle.

    "0c1b"

    Internal Common Tangent Line

    Given two circles in the same plane, an internal "0653">common tangent line is a common tangent line to the given circles which intersects the "073b">line segment connecting the "064d">centers of the given circles.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c1c"

    Internally Tangent Circles

    Given two circles that are "066e">tangent, the given circles are internally tangent if they lie on the same side of their "0653">common tangent line.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c1d"

    Major Arc

    An "064c">arc on a given circle is a major arc if it lies in the exterior of the "064e">central angle of the circle determined by the "0657">endpoints of the arc.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c1e"

    Midpoint of an Arc

    The midpoint of an arc of a given circle is the point of the "064c">arc which divides the arc into two "0655">congruent arcs.

    "0c1f"

    Minor Arc

    An "064c">arc on a given circle is a minor arc if it lies in the interior of the "064e">central angle of the circle determined by the "0657">endpoints of the arc.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c20"

    Pi

    The real number denoted (spelled "pi" and pronounced like "pie") is the ratio of the circumference of a given circle to the diameter of the given circle. The number is irrational. Its (non-terminating, non-repeating) decimal expansion is 3.14159265358979323846....

    Point of Tangency

    1. Given a circle and a "066f">tangent line, the point of tangency is the point where the tangent line intersects the circle.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c21"

    2. Given two circles that are "066e">tangent, the point of tangency is the point where the given circles intersect.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c22"

    Radius (Plural: Radii)

    1. The radius of a given circle is the distance from any point of the given circle to the "064d">center of the given circle.

    2. A radius of a given circle is any "073b">line segment whose "0c0a">endpoints are the "064d">center of the given circle and any point of the circle.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c23"

    Secant

    A secant of a given circle is a line that contains a "064f">chord of the given circle. In other words, a secant is a line which passes through the given circle in exactly two points.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c24"

    Sector

    A sector of a given circle is a region inside the given circle bounded by two "0667">radii and an "064c">arc of the given circle whose "0657">endpoints are exactly the points where the radii intersect the circle.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c25"

    Segment of a Circle

    A segment of a given circle is a region inside the given circle bounded by a "064f">chord and the "0664">minor arc cut out by the chord.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c26"

    Segment of a Secant

    Given a circle and a "0668">secant of the circle, a segment of the given secant is a "073b">line segment which lies on the given secant and intersects the circle at exactly two points, one of whose "0c0a">endpoints is a point of the circle, and the second of whose endpoints is in the "0658">exterior of the circle.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c24"

    Segment of a Tangent Line

    Given a circle, a segment of a "066f">tangent line is a "073b">line segment which lies on a tangent line to the circle and one of whose "0c0a">endpoints is the "0666">point of tangency.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c27"

    Semicircle

    A semicircle of a given circle is an "064c">arc whose "0657">endpoints are the "0c0a">endpoints of a "0656">diameter of the circle. Note that every diameter of a given circle determines exactly two semicircles.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c28"

    Tangent

    1. A given line is tangent to a given circle if the line is a "066f">tangent line to the given circle.

    2. Given two circles in the same plane, the circles are tangent if they intersect at exactly one point.

    "0c29"

    "0c2a"

    Tangent Line

    A tangent line of a given circle is a line that intersects the given circle in exactly one point.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c2b"

    Abscissa

    The abscissa of an "0678">ordered pair is the first entry. This is also known as the"0680"> x-coordinate.

    EXAMPLE: In the ordered pair (3,6) the abscissa is 3.

    Coordinate Axis

    The "067f">x-axis and "0681">y-axis are referred to as the coordinate axes.

    Coordinate Plane

    A "0741">plane in which a one-to-one correspondence between its "0684">points and the set of "0678">ordered pairs of "0688">real numbers has been established in a prescribed manner. You usually draw the coordinate plane in the following manner.

    "0c2c"

    The coordinate plane is also called the Cartesian plane.

    Coordinates of a Point

    1. The coordinate of a "0684">point on the "0677">number line is the numerical value that is represented by the point.

    2. The coordinates of a point in the "0672">coordinate plane are the entries in the "0678">ordered pair which describes the point. In other words, the coordinates are the "0670">abscissa and "0679">ordinate.

    Intercept

    An x-intercept is the "0680">x-coordinate of any "0684">point in a graph which lies on the "067f">x-axis. A y-intercept is "0682">the y-coordinate of any point in a "0bb1">graph which lies on the "0681">y-axis.

    EXAMPLE: In the graph of the solution set of the equation y = x - 1 , the x-intercept is 1 and the y-intercept is -1.

    "0c2d"

    Linear Equation

    A linear "0bae">equation is any equation whose "0bb1">graph is a "0683">line. Any linear equation can be written in the form Ax + By = C where A, B and C are real numbers and the numbers A and B are not both zero.

    Locus (Plural: Loci)

    The set of all "0684">points that satisfy one or more stated conditions.

    EXAMPLE: The "0650">circle of "0667">radius r "064d">centered at the point P is the locus of points which are distance r from the point P .

    Number Line

    A number line is a "0683">line with a prescribed one-to-one correspondence with the set of "0688">real numbers. You usually draw the number line in the following manner.

    "0c2e"

    Ordered Pair

    An ordered pair is a pair of "0688">real numbers in which one of the numbers is designated as the first and the other number as the second. The pair is written in parentheses and separated by a comma.

    EXAMPLE: (3,4) is an ordered pair. Note that the ordered pairs (3,4) and (4,3) are not equal because the order of the numbers matters in an ordered pair. Every "0684">point in the "0672">coordinate plane is uniquely defined by an ordered pair.

    Ordinate

    The ordinate of an "0678">ordered pair is the second coordinate. This is also known as the"0682"> y-coordinate.

    EXAMPLE: In the ordered pair (3,6) the ordinate is 6.

    Origin

    1. On the "0677">number line, the origin is the "0684">point that is represented by the number 0.

    "0c2f"

    2. In the "0672">coordinate plane, the origin is the point (0,0). In other words, the origin is the point of intersection of the "067f">x-axis and "0681">y-axis.

    "0c30"

    Parallel

    Two "0683">lines are parallel if they lie in the same "0741">plane and they do not cross.

    "0c31"

    Perpendicular

    Two "0683">lines are perpendicular if they cross and form an angle of 90.

    EXAMPLE: The "067f">x-axis and "0681">y-axis are perpendicular.

    "0c32"

    Quadrants

    The "067f">x-axis and "0681">y-axis divide the "0672">coordinate plane into four sections called quadrants. The upper-right section is quadrant I; upper left is quadrant II; bottom left is quadrant III; and bottom right is quadrant IV.

    "0c33"

    Slope

    The slope of a nonvertical "0683">line is the measure of its steepness and direction. If (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) are two distinct "0684">points on the given nonvertical line, the slope is given by the following formula.

    "0c34"

    The slope of a line is usually denoted by the letter m. The letter "m" refers to the French word "monter" (pronounced MOHN-tay) which means to climb, mount or ascend.

    X-Axis

    The x-axis is the primary horizontal "0683">line in the "0672">coordinate plane.

    "0c35"

    X-Coordinate

    The x-coordinate of an "0678">ordered pair is the first "0673">coordinate or "0670">abscissa, that is, the number to the left of the comma. EXAMPLE: In the ordered pair (3,2) the x-coordinate is 3.

    The x-coordinate of the "0684">point in the "0672">coordinate plane represents the horizontal "0739">distance from the point to the "0681">y-axis. If the x-coordinate is positive, then the point is to the right of the y-axis. If the x-coordinate is negative, then the point is to the left of the y-axis.

    "0c36"

    Y-Axis

    The y-axis is the primary vertical "0683">line in the "0672">coordinate plane.

    "0c37"

    Y-Coordinate

    The y-coordinate of an "0678">ordered pair is the second "0673">coordinate or "0679">ordinate, that is, the number to the right of the comma.

    EXAMPLE: In the ordered pair (3,2) the y-coordinate is 2. The y-coordinate of the "0684">point represents the vertical "0739">distance from the point to the "067f">x-axis. If the y-coordinate is positive, then the point is above the x-axis. If the y-coordinate is negative, then the point is below the x-axis.

    "0c36"

    Line

    A line is a continuous set of "0684">points forming a straight path that continues indefinitely in two opposite directions. (Technically, a line is an undefined term whose existence is assumed and whose properties are determined by the postulates of geometry.)

    Point

    A point is a dot representing a specific location. A point has no depth, length or width. (Technically, a point is an undefined term whose existence is assumed and whose properties are determined by the postulates of geometry.)

    330330030030303330303030333303303030330303030303030330303033330303030303030330303030303030330303030303"303"3"303"3"3"303"3"303"3030303030330303030303030330303030303030333303033303030303333333333303333333030333333333033333333333333333303333333330333333333033333333300333333333033333333 33333333333033333333030303330303030333030303330303030303030333030303303030303030303030303303303330303030303030330303030303030330303030303030330303030303030330303030303030333330303030303003003303333033003003030333030303033330330303033030303030303033030303333030303030303033"#303"#3032#303"3#3032#3#303"3#3032#3#303"3#332#303"3032#303"3032#303"3032#303"332#303"3032#303"302#30"30#30"3!3"32 3"032#03"3032#303"3032#33"3032#303"3032#303"3032#303"30332#33303"303332#3030303"30333333332#33303333333303033333"3330333333333333333#33303333333330"   333333"3330333333333003333332#333033333333 3333333"333303333333303032#30333"30303032#30333"30303032#333"3032#303"3032#303"3032#303"303#32#33303#3"303033#32#30303#3"30303#2#30303#"30303"#303033"303303"333030303030303033030303030303033030303030303033030303030303033030303030303033333030303030303300330333303300300303033303030303333033030303303030303030303303030333303030303030303303030303030303303030303030303"33"303#303#2303#3#303#32303#3#303#32303#332303#3032303#3032303#3032303#332303#3032303#3032303#30323033#33303230333#303030323033333333#333303333333030333333233330333333333333333#33303333333330   333333333033333333300333333#33303333333 3333333323330333333330303#3033323030303#3033323030303#3332303#3032303#3032303#3032303#333032303033#30303230303#030320303 303323303!33030#302303#3032303#303233#3032303#3032303#3032303#303233#3032303#3032303#3032303#303233#3#30323#303#3#30323#303#3#30323#303#3032#33"303030303030303333303030303030030033033Real Numbers

    The set of real numbers is the set of numbers which can be represented by a decimal expansion. The decimal expansion may terminate, repeat, or may continue forever with no pattern. Real numbers are all the numbers which can be placed on the "0bc3">number line. The set of real numbers is denoted by the symbol R.

    Sum

    A sum is the result of adding two expressions.

    EXAMPLE: The following expressions are sums.

    "0c38"

    Term

    In a sum, the terms are the expressions which are being added.

    EXAMPLE: In the sum 3x + 5 the terms are 3x and 5.

    EXAMPLE: In the expression 5x the only term is 5x. This may seem odd because there is no addition being performed, but we may rewrite the expression 5x = 5x + 0 so that a trivial addition is being performed.

    Points, Lines, Angles, Planes and Space A-B

    "0c39">Acute Angle

    "074d">Adjacent Angles

    "0754">Alternate Exterior Angles

    "0753">Alternate Interior Angles

    "0750">Angle

    "0751">Angle Bisector

    "073f">Between

    "0c3a">Bisector of a Line Segment

    Points, Lines, Angles, Planes and Space C-D

    "0c3b">Collinear Points

    "0748">Complementary Angles

    "0749">Congruent

    "0756">Consecutive Exterior Angles

    "0755">Consecutive Interior Angles

    "0c3c">Coplanar Lines

    "0742">Coplanar Points

    "0c3d">Corollary

    "0757">Corresponding Angles

    "0739">Distance Between a Point and a Line

    "0c3e">Distance Between a Point and a Plane

    Points, Lines, Angles, Planes and Space E-O

    "0c0a">Endpoints

    "074e">Exterior Sides

    "0763">Interior

    "0746">Intersecting Lines

    "0740">Length (of a Line Segment)

    "0683">Line

    "073b">Line Segment

    "0764">Linear Pair of Angles

    "073c">Midpoint of a Line Segment

    "0759">Noncollinear Points

    "075a">Noncoplanar Points

    "0c3f">Obtuse Angle

    "0c40">Opposite Rays

    Points, Lines, Angles, Planes and Space P-R

    "067b">Parallel Lines

    "0747">Parallel Planes

    "073d">Perpendicular

    "0743">Perpendicular Bisector

    "0c41">Perpendicular Planes

    "0741">Plane

    "0684">Point

    "0c42">Postulate

    "0c43">Projection of a Line Segment

    "0c44">Projection of a Point onto a Line

    "0761">Ray

    "074c">Right Angle

    Terms and Definitions S-Z

    "0c45">Side

    "074f">Straight Angle

    "074a">Supplementary Angles

    "0c46">Theorem

    "0752">Transversal

    "0c47">Vertex

    "074b">Vertical Angle

    Altitude

    Given a "06b6">polygon with two "067b">parallel "06bd">sides (such as a "06b2">parallelogram or "06c0">trapezoid) an altitude is a "06aa">line segment which is "073d">perpendicular to the parallel lines containing the given parallel sides of the polygon and which has its "06a1">endpoints on those lines.

    EXAMPLE: In the following parallelograms the vertical segments is are altitudes.

    "0c48"

    Angle

    An angle consists of two "0761">rays that have the same "06a1">endpoint.

    Apothem

    Given a "06ba">regular polygon, an apothem is a "06aa">line segment drawn from the center of the polygon "073d">perpendicular to one of the "06bd">sides of the polygon.

    EXAMPLE: In the following hexagon the segment PQ is an apothem.

    "0c49"

    Area

    Given a polygon, the area is the positive "0688">real number attributed to the polygonal region enclosed by the polygon in "00cc">Postulate P-1.

    Base

    Given a "06c0">trapezoid, a base is one of the parallel "06bd">sides.

    EXAMPLE: In the following trapezoid the sides marked a and c are the bases of the trapezoid.

    "0c4a"

    Base Angles

    Given a "06c0">trapezoid, a pair of "0691">angles of the trapezoid is a pair of base angles if their "06c1">vertices lie on the same "0694">base.

    EXAMPLE: In the following trapezoid the pair of angles marked blue are base angles, as are the angles marked red.

    "0c4b"

    Congruent

    Two geometric objects are congruent if they are of precisely the same size and shape.

    EXAMPLE: Two line segments are congruent if they have the same length.

    EXAMPLE: Two angles are congruent if the are of equal measure.

    EXAMPLE: Two triangles are congruent if they have the same corresponding agular measures and corresponding side lengths.

    Consecutive Angles

    Two "06a7">interior angles of a polygon are consecutive if their "06c1">vertices are distinct "06a1">endpoints of the same "06bd">side.

    EXAMPLE: In the following polygon the angles marked 1 and 2 are consecutive angles, as are the pairs 2 and 3, 3 and 4, 4 and 5, 5 and 6, and 6 and 1.

    "0c4c"

    Consecutive Sides

    Two "06bd">sides of a polygon are consecutive if they share a common "06c1">vertex.

    EXAMPLE: In the following polygon the pair of sides marked a and b are consecutive, as are the pairs b and c, c and d, d and e, e and f, and f and a.

    "0c4d"

    Consecutive Vertices

    Two "06c1">vertices of a polygon are consecutive if they are distinct "06a1">endpoints of the same "06bd">side.

    EXAMPLE: In the following polygon the vertices marked A and B are consecutive vertices, as are the pairs B and C, C and D, D and E, E and F, and F and A.

    "0c4e"

    Convex Polygon

    A convex polygon is a polygon whose "06a7">interior angles each measure less than 180o.

    EXAMPLE: The following polygon A is IS convex, because none of it's interior angles are greater than 180o. But polygon B is NOT convex because the interior angle C is greater than 180o.

    "0c4f"

    Corresponding Diagonals

    Given two polygons and a one-to-one correspondence between their "06c1">vertices, a "069f">diagonal of the first polygon corresponds to a diagonal of the second polygon if the vertices of the first diagonal correspond to the vertices of the second diagonal.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure

    "0c50"

    assume that A corresponds to A1, B corresponds to B1, and so on. Then the diagonal BE corresponds to the diagonal B1E1.

    Corresponding Interior Angles

    Given two polygons and a one-to-one correspondence between their "06c1">vertices, an "06a7">interior angle of the first polygon corresponds to an interior angle of the second polygon if the vertex of the first angle corresponds to the vertex of the second angle.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure

    "0c51"

    assume that A corresponds to A1, B corresponds to B1, and so on. Then the angle ABC corresponds to the angle A1B1C1.

    Corresponding Sides

    Given two polygons and a one-to-one correspondence between their "06c1">vertices, a "06bd">side of the first polygon corresponds to a side of the second polygon if the vertices of the first side correspond to the vertices of the second side.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure

    "0c52"

    assume that A corresponds to A1, B corresponds to B1, and so on. Then the side DE corresponds to the side D1E1.

    Decagon

    A decagon is a polygon with ten<1>"06bd">sides.

    EXAMPLE: The following polygon is<1>a decagon.

    "0c53"

    Diagonal of a Polygon

    A diagonal of a given polygon is a "06aa">line segment whose "06a1">endpoints are "06c1">vertices of the given polygon and which is not a "06bd">side of the given polygon.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure the segment AD is a diagonal of the hexagon ABCDEF.

    "0c54"

    Duodecagon

    A duodecagon is a polygon with twelve "06bd">sides.

    EXAMPLE: The following polygon is a duodecagon.

    "0c55"

    Endpoints

    1. If B and C are two points on a line, then the endpoints of the "06aa">line segment BC are the points B and C.<1><1>"0c56" <1>2. If a given "0761">ray is the subset of a given line consisting of all points of the line that lie on one side of the point P, then the endpoint of the ray is the point P.<1><1>"0c57"

    Equiangular Polygon

    A polygon is equiangular if every "06a7">interior angle is "0696">congruent.

    Equilateral Polygon

    A polygon is equilateral if every "06bd">side is "0696">congruent.

    Exterior Angle

    Given a polygon, an exterior angle is an angle formed by extending one "06bd">side of the polygon.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure the angle marked 1 is an exterior angle of the hexagon.

    "0c58"

    Hexagon

    A hexagon is a polygon with six "06bd">sides.

    EXAMPLE: The following polygon is a hexagon.

    "0c59"

    Inscribed

    A given polygon is inscribed within a given circle if every "06c1">vertex of the polygon lies on the circle.

    "0c5a"

    Interior Angle

    An interior angle of a polygon is an angle formed by two "06bd">sides of the polygon which intersect at a "06c1">vertex of the given polygon.

    In the following figure, all of the red angles are interior.

    "0c5b"

    Isosceles Trapezoid

    A "06c0">trapezoid is isosceles if its nonparallel, "06af">nonconsecutive sides are congruent.

    EXAMPLE: The following trapezoid is isosceles, with the red sides being both non parallel and non consecutive.

    "0c5c"

    Length (of a Line Segment)

    The length of a "06aa">line segment is defined to be the distance between the "06a1">endpoints.

    Line Segment

    If B and C are two points on a line, then the line segment BC is the set of points on that line consisting of the points B and C and all points which lie "073f">between the points B and C.

    "0c5d"

    Median

    A median of a "06c0">trapezoid is a "06aa">line segment joining the "06ac">midpoints of two nonparallel, "06af">nonconsecutive sides.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure the red segment is a median of the trapezoid.

    "0c5e"

    Midpoint of a Line Segment

    The midpoint of a "06aa">line segment is the unique point of the segment which divides the segment into two "0696">congruent segments. (Note: The midpoint is said to "bisect" the segment.)

    "0c5f"

    Nonagon

    A nonagon is a polygon with nine "06bd">sides.

    EXAMPLE: The following polygon is a nonagon.

    "0c60"

    Nonconsecutive Angles

    Two "06a7">interior angles of a polygon are nonconsecutive if their "06c1">vertices are NOT "06a1">endpoints of the same "06bd">side.

    EXAMPLE: In the following polygon the angles marked 1 and 3 are nonconsecutive angles

    "0c61"

    Nonconsecutive Sides

    Two "06bd">sides of a polygon are nonconsecutive if they do not share a common "06c1">vertex.

    EXAMPLE: In the following polygon the pair of sides marked a and c are nonconsecutive.

    "0c62"

    Nonconsecutive Vertices

    Two "06c1">vertices of a polygon are nonconsecutive if they are not "06a1">endpoints of the same "06bd">side.

    EXAMPLE: In the following polygon the vertices marked A and C are nonconsecutive vertices.

    "0c63"

    Octagon

    An octagon is a polygon with eight "06bd">sides.

    EXAMPLE: The following polygon is a octagon.

    "0c64"

    Parallelogram

    A parallelogram is a "06b7">quadrilateral whose "06af">nonconsecutive sides are parallel.

    EXAMPLE: The following polygon is a parallelogram.

    "0c65"

    Pentagon

    A pentagon is a polygon with five "06bd">sides.

    EXAMPLE: The following polygon is a pentagon.

    "0c66"

    Perimeter

    Given a polygon, the perimeter is the sum of the lengths of the "06bd">sides.

    Point

    A point is a dot representing a specific location. A point has no depth, length or width. (Technically, a point is an undefined term whose existence is assumed and whose properties are determined by the postulates of geometry.)

    Polygon

    A polygon is a closed geometric figure in a plane whose sides are "06aa">line segments such that every "06a1">endpoint of a side is the intersection of exactly two sides. The term "polygon" is derived from the Greek word meaning "many-angled."

    Quadrilateral

    A quadrilateral is a polygon with four "06bd">sides.

    EXAMPLE: Each of the following polygons is a quadrilateral.

    "0c67"

    Radius

    Given a "06ba">regular polygon, a radius is a "06aa">line segment whose "06a1">endpoints are the center of the polygon and any "06c1">vertex of the polygon.

    EXAMPLE: In the following hexagon the segment PQ is a radius.

    "0c68"

    Rectangle

    A rectangle is a "06b2">parallelogram whose "06a7">interior angles are all right angles.

    EXAMPLE: The following polygon is a rectangle.

    "0c69"

    Regular Polygon

    A polygon is regular if it is both "06a3">equilateral and "06a2">equiangular.

    Rhombus (Plural: Rhombi or Rhombuses)

    A rhombus is a parallelogram with two "0696">congruent "0698">consecutive sides.

    EXAMPLE: The following polygon is a rhombus.

    "0c6a"

    Septagon

    A septagon is a polygon with seven "06bd">sides.

    EXAMPLE: The following polygon is a septagon.

    "0c6b"

    Side

    A side of a polygon is a "06aa">line segment which makes up the given polygon and whose "06a1">endpoints are "06c1">vertices of the polygon.

    "0c6c"

    Similar Polygons

    Given two polygons and a one-to-one correspondence between their "06c1">vertices such that all pairs of "069c">corresponding interior angles are "0696">congruent and the "06ca">ratios of the measures of all pairs of "069d">corresponding sides are equal, the polygons are similar.

    EXAMPLE: The following hexagons are similar.

    "0c6d"

    Square

    A square is a "06ba">regular "06b7">quadrilateral.

    EXAMPLE: The following polygon is a square.

    "0c6e"

    Trapezoid

    A trapezoid is a "06b7">quadrilateral with one pair of parallel, "06af">nonconsecutive sides.

    EXAMPLE: The following polygon is a trapezoid.

    "0c6f"

    Vertex (Plural: Vertices)

    A vertex of a "06b6">polygon is a point which is an "06a1">endpoint of two of the "06aa">line segments which determine the polygon.

    "0c70"

    Cross-Product

    Given a "06c8">proportion, the cross-products are the product of the "06c4">extremes and the product of the "06c6">means.

    EXAMPLE: In the proportion

    "0c71"

    the cross products are the numbers ad and bc.

    Denominator

    In a ratio, the denominator is the number which comes below or to the right of the given division symbol.

    EXAMPLE: In the following ratios:

    "0c72"

    the denominator is the number y.

    Extremes

    Given a "06c8">proportion, the extremes of the given proportion are the first and fourth "06c9">proportionals.

    EXAMPLE: In the proportion

    "0c71"

    the extremes are the numbers a and d.

    Geometric Mean

    For any two positive numbers a and b, the geometric mean of the given numbers is

    "0c73"

    In other words, the geometric mean is the unique positive "0688">real number x satisfying the equation

    "0c74"

    Means

    Given a "06c8">proportion, the means of the given proportion are the second and third "06c9">proportionals.

    EXAMPLE: In the proportion

    "0c71"

    the means are the numbers b and c.

    Numerator

    In a ratio, the numerator is the number which comes above or to the left of the given division symbol.

    EXAMPLE: In the following ratios

    "0c72"

    the numerator is the number x.

    Proportion

    A proportion is an equation of two ratios which is a true statement.

    EXAMPLE: The following equation is a proportion.

    "0c75"

    Proportional

    Given a "06c8">proportion

    "0c71"

    the proportionals are the numbers a, b, c and d. The number a is called the first proportional. The number b is called the second proportional. The number c is called the third proportional. The number d is called the fourth proportional.

    Ratio

    A ratio is a comparison of two "0688">real numbers, one that is nonzero, by division. The ratio of x to y can be expressed in the four following ways.

    "0c72"

    0    H Antecedent

    The antecedent of a "06d5">hypothetical implication is the conditional part. In other words, in a "06e2">statement of the form "If A then B," the antecedent is "If A."

    Axiom

    "06dd">See Postulate

    Conclusion In a "06d5">hypothetical implication of the form "If A, then B," the conclusion is "B." In a "06e4">syllogism, the conclusion is the "06e2">statement that follows from the "06de">premises. Contrapositive

    The contrapositive of a "06d5">hypothetical implication is another hypothetical implication constructed from the original in the following manner. The "06ce">antecedent of the contrapositive is the "06dc">negation of the "06d0">conclusion of the original hypothetical implication. The conclusion of the contrapositive is the negation of the antecedent of the given hypothetical implication.

    EXAMPLE: <1>Original statement: If the sun is up, then it is day.<1>Contrapositive: If it is not day, then the sun is not up.

    EXAMPLE: <1>Original statement: If x is a positive real number, then x is greater than every negative real number.<1>Contrapositive: If x is not greater than every negative real number, then x is not a positive real number.

    Converse

    The converse of a "06d5">hypothetical implication is another hypothetical implication constructed from the original in the following manner. The "06ce">antecedent of the converse is the"06d0"> conclusion of the original hypothetical implication. The conclusion of the converse is the antecedent of the given hypothetical implication.

    EXAMPLE: <1>Original statement: If the sun is up, then it is day. <1>Converse: If it is day, then the sun is up.

    EXAMPLE: <1>Original statement: If x is a positive real number, then x is greater than every negative real number. <1>Converse: If x is greater than every negative real number, then x is a positive real number.

    Corollary

    A corollary is a "06e5">theorem that is easily proved by means of a closely related theorem.

    Hypothesis In a "06d5">hypothetical implication of the form "If A, then B" the hypothesis is A.A hypothesis is an unproved condition tentatively accepted to explain certain facts or to provide a basis for further investigation or argument. Hypothetical Implication

    A hypothetical implication is a "06e2">statement of the form "If A, then B."

    Implication

    An implication is a true "06e2">statement of the form "If A, then B."

    Inference

    Inference is the deriving of a conclusion in logic by either induction or deduction.

    Inverse

    The inverse of a "06d5">hypothetical implication is another hypothetical implication constructed from the original in the following manner. The "06ce">antecedent of the inverse is the "06dc">negation of the antecedent of the given hypothetical implication. The "06d0">conclusion of the inverse is the conclusion of the original statement.

    EXAMPLE: <1>Original statement: If the sun is up, then it is day.<1>Inverse: If the sun is not up, then it is day.

    EXAMPLE:<1>Original statement: If x is a positive real number, then x is greater than every negative real number. <1>Inverse: If x is not a positive real number, then x is greater than every negative real number.

    Logic

    Logic is the science of correct reasoning; science which describes relationships among propositions in terms of implication, contradiction, contrariety, conversion, and so on.

    Logically Equivalent

    "06e2">Statements that are either both true or both false are said to be logically equivalent. In other words, if the first statement is "06db">necessary and "06e3">sufficient for the second statement, then the statements are logically equivalent.

    Necessary

    One condition is necessary for a second condition exactly when the truth of the second condition guarantees the truth of the first condition. Equivalently, this occurs when the falseness of the first condition guarantees the falseness of the second condition.

    EXAMPLE: <1>If it is noon, then the clock reads 12:00. Therefore, for it to be noon it is necessary that the clock reads 12:00.

    EXAMPLE: <1>For the clock to read 12:00 it is NOT necessary for it to be noon. This is because it may be midnight.

    Negation

    The negation of a given condition is a condition which has the opposite meaning of the given condition.

    EXAMPLE: <1>Condition: The sky is blue. <1>Negation: The sky is not blue.

    EXAMPLE: <1>Condition: The real number x is positive. <1>Negation: The real number x is nonnegative.

    Postulate

    A postulate is a "06e2">statement whose truth is accepted without proof.

    Premise

    A premise is either of the two "06e0">propositions of a "06e4">syllogism from which the "06d0">conclusion is drawn.

    Proof

    A proof is a process for checking the correctness of a computation or "06e5">theorem.

    Proposition

    A proposition is a "06e5">theorem to be demonstrated or a problem to be solved.

    Reasoning

    Reasoning is the drawing of inferences or conclusions from known or assumed facts.

    Statement

    A statement is a sentence which may or may not be true.

    Sufficient

    One condition is sufficient for a second condition exactly when the truth of the first condition guarantees the truth of the second condition. Equivalently, this occurs when the falseness of the second condition guarantees the truth of the second condition.

    EXAMPLE:<1>If it is noon, then the clock reads 12:00. Therefore, for the clock to read 12:00 it is sufficient that it is noon.

    EXAMPLE:<1>For it to be noon, it is NOT sufficient that the clock reads 12:00. This is due to the fact that 12:00 could mean that it is midnight.

    Syllogism

    A syllogism is an argument or form of reasoning in which two "06e2">statements or premises are made and a logical "06d0">conclusion drawn from them.

    EXAMPLE:<1>The following argument is a syllogism.<1>Every man is mortal. James is a man. Therefore, James is mortal.

    Theorem

    A theorem is a "06e2">statement that can be proved.

    Altitude

    1. An altitude of a "06f8">prism is a "06aa">line segment that is perpendicular to the planes containing the "06e7">bases with an "06a1">endpoint in each plane.

    "0c76"

    2. The altitude of a "06f9">pyramid is the "06aa">line segment that is perpendicular to the plane containing the "06e7">base of the pyramid and whose "06a1">endpoints are the "0704">vertex of the pyramid and a point in the plane containing the base.

    "0c77"

    Base

    1. The bases of a "06f8">prism or "06ec">cylinder are the two "06ef">faces of the prism or cylinder that are "0696">congruent polygons lying in parallel planes.

    "0c78"

    2. The base of a "06f9">pyramid or "06ea">cone is the "06ef">face of the pyramid or cone that does not contain the "0704">vertex.

    "0c79"

    Center

    The center of a "0701">sphere is the point which is equidistant from every point of the sphere.

    "0c7a"

    Closed Polyhedron (Plural: Closed Polyhedra)

    A closed polyhedron is a geometrical figure consisting of polygons such that every side of a given polygon is a side of exactly one other given polygon.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c7b"

    Cone

    A cone is a "06f9">pyramid-like geometric figure whose "06e7">base is a circle.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c7c"

    Cube

    A cube is a "06fe">right prism whose faces are all congruent squares.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c7d"

    Cylinder

    A cylinder is a "06f8">prism-like geometric figure whose bases are congruent circles.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c7e"

    Dodecahedron

    A dodecahedron is a "06e9">closed polyhedron with twelve "06ef">faces. The faces of a regular dodecahedron are congruent equilateral pentagons.

    "0c7f">EXAMPLE

    Edge

    An edge of a "06e9">closed polyhedron is a side of a "06ef">face of the closed polyhedron.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c80"

    Face

    A face of a "0700">solid is one of the polygons that defines the solid.

    A face of a "06e9">closed polyhedron is one of the polygons defining the given closed polyhedron.

    Hexahedron

    A hexahedron is a "06e9">closed polyhedron with six "06ef">faces. A regular hexahedron is a "06eb">cube.

    "0c81">EXAMPLE

    Icosahedron

    An icosahedron is a "06e9">closed polyhedron with twenty "06ef">faces. The faces of a regular icosahedron are congruent equilateral triangles.

    "0c82">EXAMPLE

    Lateral Area

    The lateral area of a "06f8">prism, cylinder, "06f9">pyramid or cone is the sum of the areas of the "06f4">lateral faces.

    "0c83"

    "0c84"

    Lateral Edge The lateral edges of a "06f8">prism are the sides of "06f4">lateral faces of the prism which are not sides of the "06e7">bases. The lateral edges of a prism are all parallel to one another. The lateral edges of a "06f9">pyramid are the sides of the "06f4">lateral faces of the "06f8">prism which are not sides of the >"06e7">base. The lateral edges of a pyramid all intersect at the "0704">vertex of the pyramid.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c85"

    Lateral Face

    The lateral faces of a "06f8">prism or "06f9">pyramid are the "06ef">faces of the prism or pyramid that are not the "06e7">bases.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c86"

    Oblique Prism

    A "06f8">prism is oblique if its "06f3">lateral edges are not perpendicular to the "06e7">bases.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c87"

    Octahedron

    An octahedron is a "06e9">closed polyhedron with eight "06ef">faces. The faces of a regular octahedron are congruent "078e">equilateral triangles.

    "0c88">EXAMPLE

    Platonic Solid

    A platonic solid is a "06e9">closed polyhedron whose "06ef">faces and "06ee">edges are all congruent. There are exactly five types of Platonic solids: "06f0">hexahedron, "0702">tetrahedron, "06f6">octahedron, "06ed">dodecahedron and "06f1">icosahedron.

    Prism

    A prism is a "06e9">closed polyhedron two of whose "06ef">faces are congruent polygons lying in parallel planes where the other faces are parallelograms two of whose sides are in common with sides of the given congruent polygons.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c89"

    Pyramid

    A pyramid is a polyhedron consisting of a polygon (called the base) and a number of triangles satisfying the following properties.

    The number of triangles is exactly the number of sides in the base.Each side of the base is a side of exactly one of the triangles.Each side of each triangle which is not a side of the base is a side of exactly one of the other triangles.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c8a"

    Radius

    The radius of a "0701">sphere is the distance from the "06e8">center of the sphere to any point of the sphere.

    "0c8b"

    Regular Pyramid

    A regular "06f9">pyramid is a pyramid whose "06e7">base is a regular polygon and whose "06f3">lateral edges are all congruent.

    "0c8a"

    Right Circular Cone

    A "06ea">cone is a right circular cone if the "06aa">line segment drawn from the "0704">vertex of the cone to the "06e8">center of the circular base is perpendicular to the plane containing the base.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c8c"

    Right Circular Cylinder

    A "06ec">cylinder is a right circular cylinder if the "06aa">line segment connecting the "06e8">centers of the circular "06e7">bases is perpendicular to the planes which contain the bases.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c8d"

    Right Prism

    A right prism is a "06f8">prism whose "06f3">lateral edges are perpendicular to the "06e7">bases.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c8e"

    Slant Height

    Given a "06fb">regular pyramid, the slant height is the length of the "0690">altitude of one of the "06ef">faces.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c8f"

    Solid

    A solid is a geometrical figure having three dimensions.

    Sphere

    Given a point P and a positive "0688">real number r, the sphere of "06fa">radius r centered at the point P is the "0676">locus of points which are distance r from the point P.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c90"

    Tetrahedron

    A tetrahedron is a "06e9">closed polyhedron with four "06ef">faces. A regular tetrahedron is a "06f9">pyramid whose base is an "078e">equilateral triangle and whose faces are all congruent to the base.

    "0c91">EXAMPLE

    Total Area

    The total area of a polyhedron is the sum of the areas of the "06ef">faces.

    "0c92"

    Vertex

    The vertex of a "06f9">pyramid is the point where each of the triangular "06ef">faces meets.

    EXAMPLE:

    "0c93"

    Volume

    Given a solid, the volume of the solid is its capacity as measured by the number of cubic units it contains.

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"#3""32""#3""3" "0""3" "0""3" " "#3"!"32" ""#3"!"32" " "#3"!"#32" "#32"!32" "#3"#3132" "#32" "#32" "!"!"!"!""" "!"!"!""" "!!!"!"!"!"" "!"!"!"!"!"!!"""" "!"!"!"!"!!"""""!"!"!"!"!"!"""""   ""!!"!"!"!"!"!"!"""" " """" " " ""!"""" " " ""  " """"`X""""#2"3"3"#32"#12"313"3!3"3!#2"#2!#2"#2!"3"3"!"3"3"!"#2"#2"!"#2"#2"!"3"3"!"3"3"!"#2"!"!"!"#2"!"#2"!"!"!"#2"!"!"3"!!!!"!"""3"!""3"!!"!"!"!"!"3"!!"!"!"!"!"!"#2"!""#2"!"!"!"!"!"!"#2"!"!"#3"!!""""3"!"3"3"!"32"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#3"3"!"3"3"!"32"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#3"32"!"3"3"!"32"#3"!"#2"#2"!"#3"32"!"3"3"!"3"#3"!"#2"#2"!"#2"#2"!"3"3"!"3"3"!"#2"#2"!"#2"#2"!"3"3"!"3"3"#3132"#2"#2"#3132"#2"#2#32"!"#32"3"3#32"!"323" "3"!"32""#3"!"32" "#3"!"3" 0"3" " "0"3" ""#3"32" " "#3"32" "#3"#32" "#32"#32" "#3"#32" "#32" "#32" " " " """  " """" " "" " " """"" " " " "   " """""pp""#32"3"32"#3"3"3"#32"#32"#3"32"#3"32"3"3"3"3"#3"32"#32"#32"32"#3"#3"32"32"#3"#3"32"32"#3"#3"32"32"#3"#3"32"32"#3"3"3"#2"#2"32"#3"3"3"#2"#2"32"#3"3"3"#3"32"#2"#2"32"#3"3"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"32""#3"3" "3"3"""3"3" " "3"#2"""#2"#2" " "#2"#2"""#2"#2"" "#2"#2""!""#2"3" """3"3 "!!!!"!"" 3"3"!"!"!"!" 3"3"!""!"!""3"3"!"!"!"!"!"!" 3"3"3"!"!!"!" 3"3"3"3"3"33"3"3"3"3"3"3" 3"3"3"3" 3"3 "3"#2 "#2"#2"" "#2"#2"""#2"#2"" "#2"#2" ""#2"3"" "3"3" ""3"3"" "3"32" "#3"#2""#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"3"32"#3"#2"#2"#3"32"3"3"32"#3"#2"#2"3"3"32"#3"#2"#2"3"3"32"#3"#3"32"32"#3"#3"32"32"#3"#3"32"32"#3"#3"32"32"#3"#32"#32"#3"32"3"3"3"3"#3"32"#3"32"#32"#32"3"3"32"#3"3"#32""""Composition

    A composition of two "0719">transformations is a third transformation which is obtained by performing the first original transformation followed by the second original transformation.

    Deformation

    A deformation is a "0719">transformation that moves, shrinks, stretches or twists a geometric figure without breaking the shape. Deformations are also called "continuous deformations."

    Dilation

    A dilation is a "070f">deformation which stretches or shrinks a geometric figure. The resulting geometric figure is "06be">similar to the original figure.

    Enlargement

    An enlargement is a "0710">dilation where the original geometric figure is stretched. The resulting geometric figure is "06be">similar to the original figure.

    Flip

    See "0717">Reflection.

    Glide

    See "071a">Translation.

    Isometry

    An isometry is a "070f">deformation that preserves distances. The original geometric figure is "0749">congruent to the resulting figure. The "070e">composition of any two isometries is always another isometry.

    Projection

    A projection is a "070f">deformation of one of the following forms.

    1. The original geometric figure is contained in space and the resulting figure is contained in a "0741">plane, "0683">line or "0684">point.

    2. The original geometric figure is contained in a plane and the resulting figure is contained in a line or point.

    3. The original geometric figure is contained in a line and the resulting figure is contained in a point.

    Reduction

    A reduction is a "0710">dilation where the original geometrical figure is shrunk. The resulting geometric figure is "06be">similar to the original figure.

    Reflection

    A reflection is a "070f">deformation of one of the following forms.

    1. If the original geometric figure is contained in space, then the resulting figure is the mirror image of the original figure across a "0741">plane.

    2. If the original geometric figure is contained in a plane, then the resulting figure is the mirror image of the original figure across a "0683">line.

    3. If the original geometric figure is contained in a line, then the resulting figure is the mirror image of the original figure across a "0684">point.

    Any reflection is an "0714">isometry.

    Rotation

    A rotation is a "070f">deformation in which the original geometric figure is turned relative to a fixed "0684">point.

    Transformation

    A transformation is a way of changing one geometric figure into another.

    Translation

    A translation is a "070f">deformation where the original geometric figure is moved witout turning or reflecting. Any translation is an "0714">isometry.

    Turn

    See "0718">Rotation.

    Coordinate Plane

    A coordinate plane is a plane in which a one-to-one correspondence between its points and the set of "0bcc">ordered pairs of "0688">real numbers has been established in a prescribed manner. You usually draw the coordinate plane in the following manner.

    "0c94"

    The coordinate plane is also called the Cartesian plane, due to the fact that it is the "0b9a">Cartesian product of two copies of the "0bc3">number line.

    Triangles: Terms and Definitions A-H

    "0c95">Acute Triangle

    "0788">Adjacent Angles

    "0790">Altitude of a Triangle

    "0722">Angle

    "0c96">Base Angles of an Isosceles Triangle

    "07a5">Base of an Isosceles Triangle

    "078b">Bisector of an Interior Angle of a Triangle

    "07ab">Bisector of a Line Segment

    "0723">Congruent

    "0724">Corresponding Interior Angles

    "0725">Corresponding Sides

    "078d">Endpoints

    "07a7">Equiangular Triangle

    "078e">Equilateral Triangle

    "0787">Exterior Angle of a Triangle

    "07b5">Hypotenuse of a Right Triangle

    Triangles: Terms and Definitions I-P

    "07ae">Incenter of a Triangle

    "0783">Interior Angle of a Triangle

    "07a1">Isosceles Triangle

    "079a">Legs of a Right Triangle

    "0c97">Length (of a Line Segment)

    "0c98">Line Segment

    "0795">Median of a Triangle

    "07a9">Midline of a Triangle

    "07b0">Midpoint of a Line Segment

    "079c">Nonincluded Side

    "0c99">Obtuse Angle

    "0785">Obtuse Triangle

    "07ac">Orthocenter of a Triangle

    "07bb">Perimeter of a Triangle

    "0c9a">Perpendicular Bisector of a Side of a Triangle

    "0c9b">Pythagorean Theorem

    "0c9c">Pythagorean Triple

    Triangles: Terms and Definitions Q-Z

    "079b">Ratio

    "07b9">Ratio of Similitude

    "0798">Right Triangle

    "0c9d">Scale Factor

    "0c9e">Scalene Triangle

    "0720">Side of a Triangle

    "07b1">Side Opposite a Vertex

    "079d">Side Opposite an Interior Angle

    "0c9f">Sierpinski Triangle

    "07b8">Similar Triangles

    "0721">Triangle

    "0793">Trigonometric Ratio

    "0ca0">Trigonometry

    "0ca1">Vertex Angle of an Isosceles Triangle

    "0789">Vertex of a Triangle (Plural: Vertices)

    Side of a Triangle

    A side of a "0721">triangle is one of the "0c98">line segments which defines the triangle.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure

    "0ca2"

    the sides of the triangle are the line segments AB, AC and BC.

    Triangle

    A triangle is a closed, three-sided geometric figure. In other words, a triangle consists of three distinct "0c98">line segments, each of which intersects the other segments at an "078d">endpoint.

    "0ca3"

    Angle

    An angle consists of two "0761">rays that have the same "0c0a">endpoint.

    Congruent

    Two geometric objects are congruent if they are of precisely the same size and shape.

    EXAMPLE: Two "0c98">line segments are congruent if they have the same length.

    EXAMPLE: Two "0722">angles are congruent if the are of equal measure.

    EXAMPLE: Given two "0721">triangles and a one-to-one correspondence between their "0789">vertices such that all pairs "0724">corresponding interior angles are congruent and all pairs of "0725">corresponding sides are congruent, the triangles are congruent. In the following figure

    "0ca4"

    the triangles ABC and PQR are congruent.

    Corresponding Interior Angles

    Given two "0721">triangles and a one-to-one correspondence between their "0789">vertices, an "0783">interior angle of the first triangle corresponds to an interior angle of the second triangle if the vertex of the first angle corresponds to the vertex of the second angle.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure

    "0ca5"

    assume that A corresponds to A1, B corresponds to B1, and C corresponds to C1. Then the angle ABC corresponds to the angle A1B1C1.

    Corresponding Sides

    Given two "0721">triangles and a one-to-one correspondence between their "0789">vertices, a "0720">side of the first triangle corresponds to a side of the second triangle if the vertices of the first side correspond to the vertices of the second side.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure

    "0ca6"

    assume that A corresponds to A1, B corresponds to B1, and C corresponds to C1. Then the side AB corresponds to the side A1B1.

    l330330300333033030333300330303303003330330303333003303033030033303303033330033030330300330313033330033030330300333033030333300330303303003330330303333003303033030033"303"30" 303!33300"330"303 30 300 33"303"30"""303"""33"3"303"3"30""""""303030333300330303303003330330303333003303033030033303303033330033030330300333033030333300313033030033303303033330033030330300333033030333300330303303003330303030333302" 332" 303"30"30033 303 30"303"33"300 330 303   30   3032#2#332#2#3      Fractions and Decimals

    To find the equivalent of a fraction in decimal form, divide the numerator (top number) by the denominator (bottom number). To change from a decimal to a percent, multiply by 100. To change from a percent to a decimal, divide by 100.

                                                                               Place Value Chart

    "0ca7"

    Rational Number

    A rational number is any "0688">real number whose decimal expansion either terminates or repeats. Any rational number may be expressed as the "0b1c">quotient A/B of two "07c2">integers A and B where B is nonzero. The set of rational numbers is denoted by the symbol Q.

    EXAMPLE: 1/2 is a rational number. Here the decimal expansion terminates.

    "0ca8"

    EXAMPLE: 3/7 is a rational number. Notice that the decimal expansion repeats.

    "0ca9"

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    Given a "0683">line and a "0684">point not on the given line, the distance from the point to the line is the smallest distance from the given point to any point of the given line. This distance is always the "0740">length of the line segment passing through the given point that is "073d">perpendicular to the given line and whose "0c0a">endpoints are the given point and the point where the line segment crosses the given line.

    PJ3333303333030333030333032"32"303" " 3" " 33"#3"#33032"32"30331313303131303313133031313033131330313133"#13"#13"#13"#13"313"313"313"313"313"313"313"313"313"313"313"313#3"313#3"313#3"313#3"313#3"313#3"313#3"313#3"3132"#3"3132"#3"313#3#3"313#3#3"313#3#3"313#3#3"313#3#3"313#3#3"313#3#3"313#3#3"3132"#3"3132"#3"313"313"313"313"313"313"313"313"313"313"313"313"313"313"313"313"313"#13"#13"#13"#13131313131#3#31#"3031#31#333132#3132#33031313033132#3132#33031313033132#3132#33032"32"303"  "  3" " 33"#3"#33032"32"303330303330303330333333Line Segment

    If B and C are two "0684">points on a "0683">line, then the line segment BC is the set of points on that line consisting of the points B and C and all points which lie "073f">between the points B and C.

    "0caa"

    Midpoint of a Line Segment

    The midpoint of a "073b">line segment is the unique "0684">point of the segment which divides the segment into two "0749">congruent segments. The midpoint is said to "bisect" the segment.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure

    "0cab"

    the point M is the midpoint of the segment BC.

    Perpendicular

    A "0683">line, "0761">ray or "073b">line segment is perpendicular to a second (distinct) line, ray or line segment if they intersect at a single "0684">point and at an "0750">angle of 90.

    H"#2"#2"3"3"3"#32"#32"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"!"#2"!"#2"!"#2"!"#2"!"#2"!"#2"#2""#2" " "#2"!""  " "#2"!""""#2"!" "#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"#1!"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#32"#32"3"3"3"#2"#2"Between

    Given three distinct "0c3b">collinear points B, C and D, the point C lies between the points B and D if the points occur in the order B-C-D or the order D-C-B on the line.

    Length (of a Line Segment)

    The length of a "073b">line segment is defined to be the distance between the "0c0a">endpoints.

    Plane

    A plane is a surface that wholly contains every straight "0683">line joining any two "0684">points lying in the plane. (Technically, a plane is an undefined term whose existence is assumed and whose properties are determined by the postulates of geometry.)

    Coplanar Points

    A set of "0684">points is coplanar if they all lie in the same "0741">plane.

    Perpendicular Bisector

    Given a "073b">line segment, a perpendicular bisector of the given segment is a segment, "0761">ray or "0683">line that "0c3a">bisects the given segment and is "073d">perpendicular to the segment.

    """""#2"#2"3"3"3"#32"#32"#2"#2"32"#2"#23"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#23"#2"32"#2"#2"#2"3"#32"!"#32"""!"#32""!"!" 3"""#2 "!"!" #2"""""#2" "!"!" "#2""""#2"!"!"#2"""""#2" "!"!"!"!" "#2"""!"!"""#2" "!""!"!" "#2"""!""""#2" "!"!"!" "#2""""#2"!"!"#2""""#2" "!"!" "#2"""""#2" "!"!" "#2"""""#2" "!"!" "#2""""#2"!"!"#2""""#2" "!"!" "#2"""""#2" "!"!" "#2"""""#2" "!"!" "#2""""#2"!""#2""""#2" """ "#2"""""#2" """ "#2"""""#2" """ "#2"""#""#2"!"#32"32"#2"#23"#23""#2" "#32"#3" "#2""#23"#23""#2" "#23"#23" "#2""#32"32""#2" "#3"#3"30"#2"32"32"#32#32"#3"#3"#2"#3"32"32"30"#2"32"#3""#2""!" "#2" "!"!""#2" "!"!"#2"!"!" "#2" "!"!" "#2""!"!""#2" "!"!" "#2" "!"!""#2""!"!""#2"""!"#2"!""#2""!"!""#2" ""!" "#2""!"""#2"""!""#2" ""!" "#2""!"" "#2"""#2"!"!" "#2" "!"" "#2"""""#2" "!"!" "#2" "!"!" "#2""""!"""#2" "!""!"" "#2" """!"!"#2""!"!"""#2" "!"!"!"""#2" """!"!" "#2""!"!"#2 "!"" 3"""#32"!"!#32""#32"3"#2"#2"#32"#2"#23"#2"#23"#2"#23"#2"#23"#2"#32"#2"#2"#2"#32"#32"3"3"3"#2"#2""""""""33333030333303030303030303030303030303030303030303030303030303030303030303030303030303030303030303030303030303"#3032#"3032#3032#3032#"303"#3030303"32"#32"32!#3"#3"3232!3#3232#31"3#3"3013232#31033#3"330313232#313033#3"3032332#303#333"33031323332#313033#3313"3303132313132#313033#3133"3303132332#313033#3"303232#303#3"330313232#313033#3"330313232#313033#3"330313232#313033#3"303232#303#3"330313232#313033#3"330313232#313033#3"330313232#313033#3"30323#303#3#330313#3#313033#3#330313#3#313033#3#330313#3#313033#3"3032#3033031313033303131303332"3031"30303"!303"#330" ! 0" " 303"#303"#3332"3032"30303#303"32"303"2#3"2#303"3"#303"2#3"2#303"2#3"2#303"30303030303030303033330303Intersecting Lines

    Two or more "0683">lines are said to intersect if they overlap or they cross at a common "0684">point.

    Parallel Planes

    Two "0741">planes are parallel if they do not cross.

    "0cac"

    Complementary Angles

    Two "0750">angles are complementary if the sum of their measures is 90. (NOTE: See "00f6">Postulate P-11.)

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure the angles ABD and DBC are complementary.

    "0cad"

    Congruent

    Two geometric objects are congruent if they are of precisely the same size and shape.

    EXAMPLE: Two "073b">line segments are congruent if they have the same "0740">length.

    EXAMPLE: Two "0750">angles are congruent if the are of equal measure. (NOTE: See "00f6">Postulate P-11.)

    EXAMPLE: Two "0721">triangles are congruent if they have the same "0783">interior angle measures and "0725">corresponding side lengths.

    EXAMPLE: Two "0650">circles are congruent if they have the same "0667">radii.

    Supplementary Angles

    Two "0750">angles are supplementary if the sum of their measures is 180. (NOTE: See "00f6">Postulate P-11.)

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure the angles ABD and DBC are supplementary.

    "0cae"

    Vertical Angle

    Two "0750">angles are said to be vertical angles if they share a common "0c47">vertex and their "0c45">sides are two pairs of "0c40">opposite rays.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure angles 1 and 3 are vertical, and angles 2 and 4 are vertical.

    "0caf"

    Right Angle

    A right angle is an "0750">angle whose measure is exactly 90. (NOTE: See "00f6">Postulate P-11.)

    Adjacent Angles

    Two "0750">angles are said to be adjacent if they share a common "0c47">vertex and a common "0c45">side, but have no common "0763">interior points.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure the angles ABD and DBC are adjacent angles. The angles ABC and DBC are not adjacent angles.

    "0cb0"

    Exterior Sides

    Given a pair of "074d">adjacent angles, the exterior sides are the non-common "0c45">sides.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure the angles ABD and DBC are adjacent angles. The exterior sides are the rays BA and BC.

    "0cb1"

    Straight Angle

    A straight angle is an "0750">angle whose measure is exactly 180. (NOTE: See "00f6">Postulate P-11.)

    Angle

    An angle consists of two "0761">rays that have the same "0c0a">endpoint.

    "0cb2"

    Angle Bisector

    Given an "0750">angle, the angle bisector is a "0761">ray that divides the given angle into two "0749">congruent angles.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure the ray BD is the bisector of the angle ABC.

    "0cb3"

    Transversal

    A transversal is a "0683">line that crosses two or more given lines in the same "0741">plane but at different "0684">points.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure, the diagonal line is a transversal to the horizontal lines.

    "0cb4"

    Alternate Interior Angles

    Given two "0683">lines in a "0741">plane which are crossed by a "0752">transversal, two "0750">angles are alternate interior angles if they satisfy the following conditions.

    The angles are not "074d">adjacent.The angles lie between the given lines.The angles lie on opposite sides of the transversal. EXAMPLE: In the following figure, angles 3 and 6 are alternate interior angles, as are angles 4 and 5.

    "0cb5"

    Alternate Exterior Angles

    Given two "0683">lines in a "0741">plane which are crossed by a "0752">transversal, two "0750">angles are alternate exterior angles if they satisfy the following conditions.

    1. The angles are not "074d">adjacent.

    2. The angles lie outside the given lines.

    3. The angles lie on opposite sides of the transversal.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure, angles 1 and 8 are alternate exterior angles, as are angles 2 and 7.

    "0cb5"

    Consecutive Interior Angles

    Given two "0683">lines in a "0741">plane which are crossed by a "0752">transversal, two "0750">angles are consecutive interior angles if they satisfy the following conditions.

    The angles are not "0788">adjacent.The angles lie between the given lines.The angles lie on the same side of the transversal. EXAMPLE: In the following figure, angles 3 and 5 are consecutive interior angles, as are angles 4 and 6.

    "0cb5"

    Consecutive Exterior Angles

    Given two "0683">lines in a "0741">plane which are crossed by a "0752">transversal, two "0750">angles are consecutive exterior angles if they satisfy the following conditions.

    The angles are not "0788">adjacent.The angles lie outside the given lines.The angles lie on the same side of the transversal. EXAMPLE: In the following figure, angles 1 and 7 are consecutive exterior angles, as are angles 2 and 8.

    "0cb5"

    Corresponding Angles

    Given two "0683">lines in a "0741">plane which are crossed by a "0752">transversal, two "0750">angles are corresponding angles if they lie on the same side of the transversal and if one of the following conditions holds. One angle lies above the first line and the other angle lies above the second line.One angle lies below the first line and the other angle lies below the second line. EXAMPLE: In the following figure, angles 1 and 5 are corresponding angles, as are angles 2 and 6, angles 3 and 7, and angles 4 and 8.

    "0cb5"

    Absolute Value

    The absolute value of a "0688">real number is the distance between the given number and the number 0 on the number line. The absolute value of a number A is denoted |A|.

    An equivalent definition is the following

    "0cb6"

    (NOTE: See "07ba">Square Root.)

    EXAMPLE: |5.3| = 5.3

    EXAMPLE: |-18| = 18

    EXAMPLE: |- | = (Note: See "0bce">Pi.)

    Noncollinear Points

    A collection of "0684">points is noncollinear if there is no "0683">line containing all the points in the set.

    Noncoplanar Points

    A set of "0684">points is noncoplanar if there is no "0741">plane containing every point in the set.

    h333303030330303303033030330303303033030330303333333333"3"3"#3303"333"3303"#333"3303"3330"#3303"#33030"33303"#33033"#330303"33303"3303"#30303"#333"30303"#3033"#3303"3033"3030"#33"303030333303303333033033333333333333333333333333033333Complement

    If B is a "0be1">subset of A, then the complement of B in A is the "0b1e">set of "0b13">members of A which are NOT in B. We denote the complement of B in A by the expression A\B.

    EXAMPLE: If A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {1,3} then the complement of B in A is A\B={2,4} because the only members of A which are not in B are 2 and 4.

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    A ray is the part of a "0683">line that consists of a "0684">point P and the set of all points on one side of the point P.

    Half Plane

    A half plane is the set of all "0684">points in a "0741">plane which lie on one side of a "0683">line in the plane. If the line itself is included in the set, the set is called a closed half plane. If the line itself is not included in the set, the set is called an open half plane.

    EXAMPLE: The closed half plane lying to the right of the line x = 1 is the shaded region in the "071c">coordinate plane below. Note that, because we are considering the closed half plane, the line x = 1 is included in the graph.

    "0cb7"

    Interior

    A "0684">point is in the interior of an "0750">angle if there is a point P on one "0c45">side of the angle and a point Q on the other side of the angle such that the given point lies on the segment PQ.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure the point A is in the interior of the given angle and the point B is not in the interior.

    "0cb8"

    Linear Pair of Angles

    Two "0750">angles form a linear pair if they are "074d">adjacent and "074a">supplementary.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure

    "0cae"

    the angles ABD and DBC form a linear pair.

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#32"3"#23"#32"#"#2"#"#"#"#2"#2"3"3"2"2"2"2"""""PP"""#32"#312"#2"2"#2"!2"#2"#2"#2"!#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2""#2"#2!"#2"#2"#2"#1"#2"#32"#32"""PP"""#32"#312"#0"2"#2"!2"#2 "#2"#2""!#2"#2" ""#2"#2""!"#2"#2" ""#2"#2""!"#2"#2" ""#2"#2""!"#2"#2" ""#2"#2""!"#2"#2" ""#2"#2""!"#2"#2" ""#2"#2""!"#2"#2" ""#2"#2""!"#2"#2" ""#2"#2""!"#2"#2" ""#2"#2""!"#2"#2" ""#2"#2""!"#2"#2" ""#2"#2""!"#2"#2" ""#2"#2""!"#2"#2" ""#2"#2"!"#2"#2" "#2"#2"!"#2"#2" "#2"#2"!""#2"#2"" "#2"#2"!""#2"#2"" "#2"#2"!""#2"#2"" "#2"#2"!""#2"#2"" "#2"#2"!""#2"#2"" "#2"#2"!""#2"#2"" "#2"#2"!""#2"#2"" "#2"#2"!""#2"#2"" "#2"#2"!""#2"#2"" "#2"#2"!""#2"#2"" "#2"#2"!""#2"#2"" "#2"#2"!""#2"#2"" "#2"#2"!""#2"#2"" "#2"#2!"#2"#2" #2"#1"2"#302"#32"""PP"""#32"#33032"#2"" "#2"#2"" "#2"#2"" "#2"#2"" "#2"#2"" "#2"#2"" "#2"#2"" "#2"#" 2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#" 2"#2"" "#2"#2"" "#2"#2"" "#2"#2"" "#2"#2"" "#2"#2"" "#2"#2"" "#2"#33032"#32"""""""""3"#32"32"#3"#3"32"#3"#3"32"#32"3"3"#3"3"#3"32"#32"32"32"#32"32"#3"#2"32"32"3"#3"#2"32"3"#3"#2"32"3"#3"#2"32"3"#3"#2"#2"#3"3"3"#3"#2"#2"#3"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"#"3"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"#02"#3"3"3"3"#"3"#2"2"#2"#2"#2"#2""2"#2""2"#2""2"#2""3"#"""3"#"""3"#"""3"3"""3"3"""3"3"""#"3"""#"3"""3"3"""3"#"""3"#"""3"#"""3"#2""3"#2""2"#2""2"#2""2"#2"#2"#2"#2"2"#2"3"#2"3"3"#3"#02"#2"#2"3"#2"3"#"3"3"#"3"#2"#2"#3"#2"3"3"#2"3"#3"#2"3"3"#2"3"#2"#2"3"32"32"3"#2"#2"3"32"#2"#3"3"32"#2"#3"3"32"#2"#3"3"32"#3"#3"32"#32"#32"32"#3"3"3"#3"32"#3"32"#32"#3"#32"32"32"32"#3"#3"#32"3"32"#3""""""`x   XH H H Interior Angle of a Triangle

    Given a "0721">triangle, an interior angle is an "0722">angle whose "0c47">vertex is a "0789">vertex of the given triangle and whose "0c45">sides contain the two "0720">sides of the given triangle which have the given vertex as a vertex.

    EXAMPLE: In the triangle ABC, the interior angles are the angles ABC, BCA and CAB.

    "0cb9"

    the interior angles are the angles ABC, BCA and CAB.

    Bisector of an Interior Angle of a Triangle

    Given a triangle and an "0783">interior angle of the given triangle, a bisector of the given angle is a line which bisects the given angle and intersects the "079d">side of the triangle opposite the given angle.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure the segment AD bisects the angle CAB.

    "0cba"

    Obtuse Triangle

    A triangle is obtuse if one of its "0783">interior angles has measure greater than 90.

    EXAMPLE: The following triangle is obtuse

    "0cbb"

    because the angle ABC has measure greater than 90.

    Corresponding Interior Angles

    Given two triangles and a one-to-one correspondence between their vertices, an interior angle of the first triangle corresponds to an "0783">interior angle of the second triangle if the "0789">vertex of the first angle corresponds to the vertex of the second angle.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure

    "0ca5"

    assume that A corresponds to A', B corresponds to B', and C corresponds to C'. Then the angle ABC corresponds to the angle A'B'C'.

    Exterior Angle of a Triangle

    Given a "0721">triangle and an "0783">interior angle of the given triangle, an exterior angle of the given triangle is an "0722">angle created outside the triangle by one "0720">side of the triangle and the extension of an adjacent side.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure

    "0cbc"

    the angle ACD is an external angle of the triangle ABC.

    Adjacent Angles

    Two "0722">angles are said to be adjacent if they share a common "0789">vertex and a common "0720">side, but have no common "0783">interior points. EXAMPLE: In the following figure

    "0cbd"

    the angles ABD and DBC are adjacent angles. The angles ABC and CBA are not adjacent angles.

    Vertex of a Triangle (Plural: Vertices)

    A vertex of a "0721">triangle is one of the "078d">endpoints of the "0c98">line segments which define the triangle.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure

    "0cbe"

    the vertices of the triangle are the points A, B and C.

    Point

    A point is a dot representing a specific location. A point has no depth, length or width. (Technically, a point is an undefined term whose existence is assumed and whose properties are determined by the postulates of geometry.)

    Bisector of an Interior Angle of a Triangle

    Given a "0721">triangle and an "0783">interior angle of the given triangle, a bisector of the given angle is a "0683">line which "0751">bisects the given angle and intersects the "079d">side of the triangle opposite the given angle.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure

    "0cba"

    the segment AD is the bisector of the angle CAB.

    Perpendicular Bisector of a Side of a Triangle

    Given a triangle and a "0720">side of the given triangle, a perpendicular bisector of the given side is a line, ray or line segment which intersects the given side at its midpoint and is perpendicular to the given side.

    EXAMPLE: In the triangle ABC the line segment DE is a perpendicular bisector of the side BC.

    "0cbf"

    Endpoints

    1. If B and C are two "0684">points on a "0683">line, then the endpoints of the "0c98">line segment BC are the points B and C.

    2. If a given "0761">ray is the subset of a given line consisting of all points of the line that lie on one side of the point P, then the endpoint of the ray is the point P.

    "0cc0"

    Equilateral Triangle

    A "0721">triangle is equilateral if its "0720">sides are all "0723">congruent.

    EXAMPLE: The following triangle is equilateral.

    "0cc1"

    P0r""3"3"3"3"3"#3"3"#3"3"3#2"3"3#2"32"3"3#2"#3"3"#2"32"#323"#2"3"#23"#3"#3"32"3"3"#2"#3"3"#2"3"3"#2"#3"#23"#3"#3"32"32#3"32"32"32"3"#2#3"#2"3"3"#2"#32#2"#3"#32"32"#32#2"#3"#32"32" 32#2#2"#2"32#2"3"#2#2"#3"3"3"#2"32"32#2"32"32"32"#323#2"#3"#323"3"3"3"3"3"32"3"#3"3"3"3"3"3"32"3"#32"#3"3"#32"#323"#3"#23"3"#3"3"3"3"32#3"#3"#32"3"3""Altitude of a Triangle

    Given a "0721">triangle, an altitude is a "073b">line segment which is drawn from a "0789">vertex of the triangle which is "073d">perpendicular to the line determined by the side which does not contain the given vertex. (NOTE: See "0720">Side of a Triangle.)

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure

    "0cc2"

    the line segment AD is an altitude of the triangle ABC.

    X0r""3"3"3"3"3"32"3"#3"3"3"3"3"3"32"3"#32"#3"3"#32"#323"#3"#23"3"#3"3"3"3"32#3"#3"#32"32"#3"#23"#3"#3"32"3"3"#3"32#3"32"32"32"#2"3"3"#2#3"#2"3"3"#2"3"#32#2"#3"#32"32"3"#32#2"#3"#32"32#3"3" 32#2#2"#2"32#2"#2"3"3"#2#2"#3"3"3"#2"32"#3"32#2"32"32"32"#32"3 #2"#323#2"#3"#323"3"#3"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"#3"32"#3"3"#32"#32""""0r""""""#2"32"#32"3#2"2#2"#2"#2"3"#2"#2"#2"3"#2"#3"3"#2"#2"3"#2#32"3"#2"#2" #2#2"#3"3"#3"#23"#3"#3"#2"#3"#232"3 2"3"3#32"3"3"2"#2"32#3"#32"32"32"#2"32#3"#3"3"3"3"3"#2"3"#2#3"#2"3"3"#2"32" 3"#2#3"32"#2"3"3"32"3"3"3"#2"#32#2"#3"#32"#32#2"#2"#32"3"3"3"3"3"#2"#32#2"#3"#32"3"#32#2"#2"32"3"3"3"3"3"#2" 32#2#2"#2"32#2"3 "32#2#2"#2"3"3"3"3"3"3"2"#2"3"#2#2"#3"3"3"#2" 3"#2#3"32"#2"3"3"3" 3"3"#2"#3"#2"32#2"32"32"32"32#3"#3"3"3"3"#2#32"3"#323#2"#3"#323"32"3"#323#232"32"3"3"3"#2"#3"3"#32"#2"3"32"3"3"#2"3"3"3"#2"32"#3"32"#2"3"3""""""Trigonometric Ratio

    A trigonometric ratio is a "079b">ratio of the measures of two "0720">sides of a right triangle. The six trigonometric ratios are sine, cosine, tangent, secant, cosecant and cotangent.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure

    "0cc3"

    if is the measure of the angle BCA, a = adjacent, b = hypotenuse, and c = opposite, then the trigonometric ratios associated to the angle are given by the following formulas.

    "0cc4"

    X0r""""3"#3"3"#23"#"3"3"3"3"3"#2"#2"3"#2"#2"32"3#2"32"32"3"#2"#2"#3"32#3"#3"#3"3"#232"#23"#2"3"32"3"#2#2"3"#3"#3"#32"3"3"32"3" #3"32"3"#2"3"3"32"3"#3 2#2"#2#2"#2"#3"3"3"3"#3"3"#3 2#2"#2#2"#2"#2"3"3"32#2#2"3" #2"#2#2"#2"#3"3"#3"#3"#3" #2"32#2"#2"3#23"32"3#2"#3"#32"#3"#2"#2"3"#32"#2"#2"#3"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"#3"32"#3"3"#32"#32""""Median of a Triangle

    A median of a "0721">triangle is a "0c98">line segment connecting a "0789">vertex of the triangle and the "07b0">midpoint of the opposite side. (NOTE: See "07b1">Side Opposite a Vertex.)

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure

    "0cc5"

    the line segment AD is a median of the triangle ABC.

    hr"""#3"32"32"32"32"#33"#232"#2#3"3""32"3""#2"#2"!"3"#2"!"#2"3"!"#3"3"!"32"#3"!"#2"#2""3"32""#2"3""#3"3""32"#2""#3"#2""3"3"!"#2"3"!"3"#2"!"32"#2"!"#3"!"32"!"3"!""!"""3""!"#2"!!"!"#3"""3"!!"!"#2""!!"!"!"#2"""#3"!""!!"!"3""!"32"3""#2"#2"!"3"#2"!"#2"3"!"#3"3"!"32"#3"!"#2"#2""3"32""#2"3""#3"3""32"#2""#3"#2""3"3"!"#2"3"!"3"#2"!"32"#2"!"#3"32"!"32"3""#2"#3""3"#2""32"#2""#3"3""32"3""#2"#2"!"3"#2"!"#2"3"!"#3"3"!"32"#3"!"#3"#2""3"32""#2"3""#3"3""32"#2""#3"#2""3"3"!"#2"3"!"3"#2"!"32"#2"!"#3"32"!"32"3""#2"#3""3"#2""32"#2""#3"3""32"3""#2"#2"!"3"#2"!"#2"3"!"#3"3"!"32"#3"!"#3"#2""3"32""#2"3""#3"3""32"#2""#3"#2""""3"3""!""#2"3""#3""3"#3332"333""32"""#3"""""""r""""""""#3"3"3#2"3#2"3"3#2"!"3"3#2"""3#2"3#2""!"#3"3"!"""!"!""!"#3"#3"!33"3"32"!"#32"33"!""332"33""!"33"33"!""332"33""!"#332"33"!""#03"32""!"#03"32""#032"32"332"33"33"33"332"33"#332"33"#03"32"#03"32"#032"32"332"33"33"33"332"33"#332"33"#03"32"#03"32"#032"32"332"33"33"33"332"33"#032"#032"#032"#03312"33313"3333"3333"#03313"#0332"#0332"#03312"33313"3333"33313"#03312"#0332"#0332"#03312"33313"3333"3333"#03312"#0332"#0332"#03312"33313"3333"#33"32"32"32"32"#3"#3""#"3"32"3#2"#23"3"#3"3#2"#23"3#2"#23"3"""""""""#"32"32"2"2"#"#"#"2"2"2" #3"#2"#3#3 2"3"#3"32"#"2"2" 32"#3#2"32"3"2"2"2#"3#"2#"2#"2#"#"2"2"2#"#"2#"2"#2"3"2#"2#32#"2#"#"2"2"2#"#3#"32#32"#"2"2#"2#"#"2#"#"#"2#"2#"2#"#"2#"2"32"#3"#3#"2#"32#"2#2"32"32"32"3#"#32"32"2#"2"#2"2"""#"2"2"#32"#"2"#"#"#"32#2" #3"#2"32#32"3"#3#3"#"#"#"#"2#"2"2#"2#"2#"2#"2"2"2#3"#"2#"#2"3#"2#"2#32#"2"32#"#"#"2#" #"2"#"2#"2#"#"2"2"2#"#"#2#2"32"#3"32#"2#"32#"23"#"#32"#"2"3"""""""""""Right Triangle

    A "0721">triangle is a right triangle if one of its "0783">interior angles is a "074c">right angle.

    EXAMPLE: The following triangle is a right triangle.

    "0cc6"

    X0r""""3"#3"3"#23"#"3"3"3"3"#2"3"#2"3"#2"32"3#2"32"32"3"#3"#232"#3"32#3"#3"#3"3"32#3"#2"3"32"3"#2#2"3"#3" 3"#2#3"32"3"3"32"3"#32#2"#2"3"3"32"3"#32"#32#2"#2"#3"3"3"3"#3"3"#3 2"32#2#2"#2"#2"3"3"32#2#2"3" 3"#2#2"32"#3"3"#3"#3"#3"32#3"3#23"32"3#2"#3"#32"#323#32"3"#3"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"#3"32"#3"3"#32"#32""""Legs of a Right Triangle

    Given a "0798">right triangle, the legs are the "0720">sides which are not the "07b5">hypotenuse.

    EXAMPLE: In the following right triangle

    "0cc7"

    the legs are the sides AB and BC.

    Ratio

    The ratio of two numbers is a comparison of the given numbers using division. The ratio of two "0688">real numbers x and y (where y is nonzero) can be written in a number of ways: x/y; x y; x to y; x : y.

    Non-included Side

    Given a "0721">triangle and two "0783">interior angles of the triangle, a "0720">side of the triangle is a non-included side if it is not the side which is common to the two given interior angles.

    EXAMPLE: In the following triangle

    "0cc8"

    the non-included sides corresponding to the interior angles ABC and BCA are the sides AB and AC.

    Side Opposite an Interior Angle

    Given a "0721">triangle and an "0783">interior angle of the given triangle, the "0720">side opposite the given angle is the side which does not determine the angle. In other words, given the triangle ABC, the side opposite the interior angle ABC is the segment AC.

    "0cc9"

    ps33332"3"#3"#3"#3"3130312333132#033 3131133"331313113 13#"#333131313 123#2303#31313313 23"3#33 #2#2#2#3"3"31313331133#32303#323#23#3132#303#2"23#2"#313#33#232"23#313332303#2"2323"3#313133233"#33131313#33113313"3032313332"33 2#32#2"32#23"3 131332#33"323#2323#3132"303"#32"23#32"#3132"3"#3#23#2"2332"#30"#32"23#323"33"03"#31331303333313031333033031331303333313031333033031331303333313031333033031331303333313031333033031333313133130333131333333313131303131333313303031303"!"3"!"3313303131313#313 #2#2"32#3"3"313#23"#23#3#23#2"#33#23#2"23#31133113 #2#23#323"3#331313"#3113131331323#3131132"3#2#3#323"#232#23#"31323#3 1131133"#23"#2#31311331131313113113313333333333333s3323#32"232#2#3"3"3 #32"3#323"23#32#23#23#2"#323#23#23#30323"#23#2#2323"3#303"3032#303"32303" 32#2"32#23"30 32323#323#30 3#32"23#2"2"#30"323#23#2"230" 32"23#323"30" 3"#30"30"3030303033030303030330303030303303030303033030303030330303030303303030303033030303030330303030303323#303032"232#2#3"3"30303#32"3#23"23#30332#23#23#2"#3030323#23#23#30303"#23#2#2323"3#30330303230303"3#3230332#3"#323"30"3"323#2"23#3"3"3"3#2"#323#23#32"3#2"3"3233333331303 133331130313131303131313031333130313133113013313033130333031331303313 1131133031331313303131311313130331311303131133133033303303130330313031303303130330330313033031303130330313033033031303303130313033031303303303130330313031303303130330330313033031303130330313033033313333133131333331313333133333333133 11133331333313133131133311313313131133131131333131333Xs3333333030303333330303303030333133333313133303 13113133 313313033131331313131303031313 11313311303313131131313303131131313133133333333033133033 13113113030311313033131313303133131333 131131133330313033 11311331303031313303311311330313113133 311331333#323333"3#3"3"3"3"330323#"23#23#30332"#23#2"#23#3030323#23#23#3033"3# 23"3#23"3#330333#333 "3"#3"3#2#3303#23#23033"#23#"3030323#23"#3033"#23#2#3" 3032"3"#333"#3332#333230313"3031303#303332#33303233133233133230313033333333333333Isosceles Triangle

    A "0721">triangle is isosceles if at least two of its "0720">sides are "0723">congruent.

    EXAMPLE: The following triangle is isosceles.

    "0cca"

    Base Angles of an Isosceles Triangle

    Given an "07a1">isosceles triangle, the base angles are the angles that lie opposite the congruent "0720">sides of the given triangle.

    EXAMPLE: In the following isosceles triangle

    "0ccb"

    the base angles are the angles ABC and BCA.

    xr""""""#2"3"3"32"#2#2"#2#2"3"3"3"3"#3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#3"3"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"32"3"3"3"3"32"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"3"#3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#3"3"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"32"3"3"3"3"32"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"3"#3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#3"3"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"32"3"3"3"3"32"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"3"#3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#3"3"3"3"3"!"""!"#2"#2"""!"#"!2"!""30"3"!""3"""3""!"3""!"32"#2" ""#2"#2"""#2"3" "!""3"!"!"3" ""!"3" !""""!"#3""!""#2"!""!"!"#2" "!"!!!"!""#2" """#3"!"!"!""3""!"!"3"!""!"!""3" "!""3"!"#2"""#2"#2""!"#2"!"32" ""3""3"""3"!"3"!"32""#2" "#2"!"#2""#2""3"! "3!"3"" "3"#3"!""!"#2"!" "2"#2"" "!3"3"!"""3"3"!" "!"3"#2"" ""#2"#2"!""!"!"#2"32"" "!""3"3"""!"3"3"!""!"32"#2"" "!"#2"#2"""!"#2"3"!""3"3"" "3"#3"!""#2"#2"!" "#2"#2"" "#3"3"!""3"3"!" "3"#2"" "#2" "!""!"32"" "!"3"3""!"3"3"""32"#2"""#2"#2" "!"#2"3"!""!""3"3"""" "3"#3"!" """#2"#2!" "" #2"#2" "" #3"3!" ""3"1""" "#331302"3313""""""Vertex Angle of an Isosceles Triangle

    Given an "07a1">isosceles triangle, the vertex angle is the angle formed by the congruent "0720">sides of the given triangle.

    EXAMPLE: In the following isosceles triangle

    "0ccc"

    the vertex angle is the angle BAC.

    Base of an Isosceles Triangle

    The base of an "07a1">isosceles triangle is a "0720">side such that the other two sides are "0723">congruent. In other words, if the triangle is not "078e">equilateral then the base is the side which is not congruent to the other sides. If the triangle is equilateral, then the base is any of the sides.

    EXAMPLE: In the following isosceles triangle

    "0ccd"

    the base is the segment BC.

    hr"""!"""1"1"#12"#12"#12"3!3"3!3"#2!#2"#2!#2"#2!#2"3"!"3"3"!"3"#2"!"#2" "!""#0!2"3" "3"3"!"3"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"3"!"3"3"!"3"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"3"!"3"3"!"3"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"3"!"3"3"!"3"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"3"!"3"3"!"3"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"3"!"3"3"!"3"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"3"!"3"3"!"3"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"3"!"3"3"!"3"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"3"!"3""3"!"3"" 2"!"#0"2"!"#" "!" "3"!"3"3 "!" 3"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"3"!"3"3"!"3"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"3"!"3"3"!"3"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"3"!"3"3"!"3"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"3"!"3"3"!"3"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"3"!"3"3"!"3"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"3"!"3"3"!"3"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"3"!"3"3"!"3"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"3"!"3"3"!"3"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"3"!"3"3"!"3"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"3"!""3"3"!""3"#2"!""#2"#2"!""#2"#2"!""#2"3""!"" "3"3""!"" "3"#33032"#33032"" "" """Equiangular Triangle

    A "0721">triangle is equiangular if all three "0783">interior angles are "0723">congruent.

    EXAMPLE: The following triangle is equiangular.

    "0cce"

    r""""""""#2"3"3"#2#2"#2#2"#2#2"3"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"3""3"3"" 2"#0"2"#" " "3"3"3 " 3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"3"!""#1"2"#2!"#2"3"!"!"3"3""!"3"#2"""#2"#2"!""#2"#2"!"!"#2"3""!"3"3""!"3"#33132"#33132"""""""Midline of a Triangle

    Given a "0721">triangle and two "0720">sides of the given triangle, the midline of the given triangle associated to the given sides is "0c98">the line segment whose "078d">endpoints are the "07b0">midpoints of the given sides.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure

    "0ccf"

    the segment DE is a midline of the triangle ABC.

    r"" " "" " ""#2" "3""32""#2#2" "#2"3""3"3""#3"#2" "#2"#2" "32"3""3"32" "#2"#2" "#2"3""3"3""#3"#2"" "#2"#2"""32"3"""3"32" " "#2"#2" " "#2"3"""3"3" "#3"#2" "#2"#2""32"3""3"32" "#2"#2""32"3""3"3" "#3"#2" "#2"#2""32"#3""3"32" "#2"#2""#2"3""3"3" "#3"#2" "#2"#2""32"3" "3"32" "#2"#2""#2"3""3"3" "#3"#2""#2"#2""32"3" "3"32" "#2"#2""#2"3""3"3" "#3"#2" "#2"#2"32"3"3"32"#2"#2"#2!"3"!"!"3"!"#2"!"#2"!"3" "1!"32""#2!"#2""#2!"3" "3""3""#3"!"#2""#2"!"#2" "32""3" "3""32""#2"!"#2""#2"!"3" "3""3""#3"!"#2"""#2"!"#2"" "32""3"" "3""32" ""#2"!"#2" " "#2"!"3"" "3""3""#3"!"#2""#2"!"#2" "32""3""3""32""#2"!"#2" "#2"!"3" "3""3""#3"!"#2" "#2"!"#3" "32""3""3""32""#2"!"#2" "#2"!"3""3""3""#3"!"#2" "#2"!"#2" "32""3""3""32" "#2"!"#2" "#2""3""3""3""#3"!"#2" "#2"!"#2" "32""3""3""32""#2"!"#2" "#2""!"3" "3""!"3"#3"!"!"#2"#2"!"!"#2"32""!"3"3"!"32"#2"!"#2"#2""3"3""3"#332"33""!" "" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " "" "" """ "" " " "" " " " " "" "" " " " " " """"Bisector of a Line Segment

    Given a "073b">line segment, a bisector of the segment is a "0683">line, "0761">ray or line segment that divides the segment into two "0723">congruent line segments.

    EXAMPLE: In the figure below

    "0cd0"

    the line segment PQ is a bisector of the segment BC.

    Orthocenter of a Triangle

    The orthocenter of a given "0721">triangle is the "078a">point at which the three "0790">altitudes of the given triangle intersect.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure,

    "0cd1"

    the point P is the orthocenter of the triangle ABC.

    hr"" " "" " ""#2"3"#3"322"#3"3"32"3"#3"#2"32"#2"#3""3"32""32"#3""#2"32""3"#3""32"32""#2"#3""#3"32""3"#3""#2"32""#3"#3""3"32 ""#2"#3"""#2"30" "" "#3"""" #2"32" " """#2"#3""" "3"32" "" "3"#3""" 2"32" "" #3"#3""""3"32" """#2"#3""""#3"32" "" "3"#3" "32"32""!"#2"#3""!"3"32""!"32"#3" !"!"#2"32" " "!"3"#3" ""!"3"32""" "#2"#3""""#3"32""" "3"#3" """#2"32" "" "#3"#3" """3"32""" "32"#3""""#2"32""" "3"#3" """32"32" "" "#2"#3" """3"32""" "3"#3""""#2"32" "" "#3"#3" """3"32" "" "#2"#3""""#2"32""" "3"#3""""32"32" "" "#2"#3" """3"32" "" "32"#3""""#2"32""" "#3"#3""""3"32" "" "#2"#3" """#3"32""" "3"#3""""#2"32""" "#2"#3" """3"32" "" "32"#3" """#2"32""" "3"#3""""3"32""" "#2"#3" ""#3"32" "" "3"#3" ""#2"32""" #3"#3"""3"32""" 32"#3"""2"30""" 3"#32"#3""" " " """ "" " "" ""Incenter of a Triangle

    The incenter of a given "0721">triangle is the "078a">point at which the three "0784">bisectors of the interior angles of the triangle intersect.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure,

    "0cd2"

    the point P is the incenter of the triangle.

    r"""""#"3"32"#22"#23"3"3"#3"#2"#2"#2"32""3"3""32"#2""#2"#2""3"3""3"#3""#2"#2""#2"32""3"3""32"#2""#2"#2""3"3""3"#3""#2"#2""#2"32""3"3""32"#2""#2"32""3"3""3"#3""#2"#2""#2"32""#3"3""32"#2""#2"#2""3"3""3"#3""#2"#2""#2"32""3"3""32"#2""#2"#2""3"3""3"#3""#2"#2""#2"32""3"3""32"#2""#2"#2""3"3""3"#3""#2"#2""#2"32""3"3""32"#2""#2"#2""3"3""3"#3""#2"#"" 2"30"" 3"3" "" "32"#2" ""#2"#2" "!""3"3""!""3"#3""!!""#2"#2""!!" "#2"32" "!!" "3"3" "!" "32"#2" "!""#2"#2" "!""3"3""!""3"#3""!""#2"#2""" "#2"32" "" "3"3" " "32"#2" "#2"#2""3"3""3"#3""#2"#2" !""#2"32" "" "3"3" "" "32"#2""" "#2"#2""" "3"3""""3"#3""""#2"#2" """#3"32" "" "3"3" "" "32"#2""" "#2"#2"""3"3""""3"#3""""#2"#2" """#2"32" "" "3"3" "" "32"#2""" "#2"#2""" "3"3""""3"#3""""#2"#2" """#2"32" "" "3"3" "" "32"#2""" "#2"#2""" "3"3""""3"#3""""#2"#2" """#2"32" "" "3"3" "" "32"#2""" #2"#2"" "3"3""3"#332"3""""""""""""""Midpoint of a Line Segment

    The midpoint of a "0c98">line segment is the unique "078a">point of the segment which divides the segment into two "0723">congruent segments. (Note: The midpoint is said to "bisect" the segment.)

    EXAMPLE: The midpoint in the following figure is "M".

    "0cd3"

    Side Opposite a Vertex

    Given a "0721">triangle and a "0789">vertex of the given triangle, the "0720">side opposite the given vertex is the side which does not contain the given vertex. In other words, given the triangle ABC, the side opposite the vertex A is the side BC.

    "0cd4"

    """"2"#3"3#2"32"3#2"3#2"""32"32"3"#02"#03"#03"#0#2"3 #3"3""3"3""#2"#2""#3"#2""3"#2""#2"3" "#3"3" "32"3" "#2"#2" "3"#2" "32"#2""#2"3""3"3""32"3""#3"#2""3"#2" "#2"#2" "#3"3" "3""3" "#2!"3" "#3""!#2""12!"!2""2"#""!"1"32"""2"3""!#2"3" ""3"#3" "32"#2" "#3"#2" "3"#2" "#2"3""#3"3""3"3""#2"#2""#3"#2""32"#2" "#2"3" "3"3" "32"3" "#2"#2" "3"#2""32"#2""#3"3""3"3""32"3""#3"#2" "3"#2" "#2"#2" "#3"3" "3"3" "#2""" 3" ""2"#0""#2"#2 """3"32""" "32"3"" ""#2"3"" " "3"3"" " "32"#2" " ""#3"#2" " " "3"#2" "" "#2"3" """#3"3" "" "3"3""" "#2"#2""""#3"#2"" " "32"#2""  "#2"3"  "3"3" "32"3" "#2"#2""3"#2" "32""#2" "#3!"3""""3""3" """!2!""3" " ""3""" " "!"1"#1" " " ""2"#2!" " " "!#3"3"" """32"3" """#2"3" """3"#3""""32"#2" """#2"#2" """3"#2"" " "32"3"" " "#2"3" " " "3"3"" " "32"#2"" ""#3"#2" """3"#2""""#2"3""""#3"3" "" "3"3""" "#2"#2"" " "#3"#2" " " "32"#2"" " "#2"3"" ""3"3" " ""32"3""""#2"#2""""3"#2" "" "32"#2""" #3"3""" 3"3 " " 2"3"!" "" 3"#"!" """#3130332"#3133"!""3"!""32"3#2"!""#23"3"!""#2"3#2"#2"3#2"#23"3"32"""333330303303033332"33"#33"3003"2#"30032"32#3"#30332#32#32#303032#33032#3332#33032#303032#30332#303032#33032#3332#33032#30332#30332#303032#3332#3332#33032#30332#303032#303032#3332#3302#3302#303#3030#303#332#332#332 3032 3032 3032#3032#0332#0332#3332#303032#303032#33032#30332#3332#3332#303032#33032#33032#30332#3332#31332#3130132#313303132#33030332#3303332#31303332#33#3"#3132#313"3"#132#313"30302"#32#32"#30303"32#32"#3332"32#32"333"32#32"#3033"32#3"333"#32#"3303"#32"303032"33032"#30332"30332"#2#2"333"32#32"30303"32#3"30303"32#3"#33032"32#3" 332"#32#3"#332"#32#32"#3"332"#32#30"3"#303"32#332"32"303"32#332"3"#303"32#303"32#332"32#33"#3"332"#32#33"#332"#32#303"#332"#32#33"#303"32#3032"303"32#303"#33"32#33"#332"32#3032"332"#32#332#3032"#32#33032"#32#30303"32#3303"32#333"32#30332"32#332"#32#330"#32#3032"#32#33"32#303"3"32#303"3"32#33"32"332#303"32"#032#303"32"#3032#33"2"#3032#303"332#33"33#33"#33#303"#0332#330332#330332#303332#33332#303332#330332#330 30 3330303303030303033333x""""" "!""#2"!""32" "#2"!"!"3" "#32"#32"!!"3"#" "#23"2"!"#23"  "#32"#23"!!"3" "#32"!!""""""""""!"2""#3"!"!"3#2""!"32"!"!"3#2"""3#2!""""!"!"!"!"#3"!"#32"!"!3032"""!0#32"""!!"#3"""!"#"31" "!""#1"" "!"!"#2"!""!""3""!!"""!"3"""!2""""#3"""3"""!""#2""!""3""!!""!"!"32""!"32""!"!"""3""!"#32"!!"!"!"#3""!"#3"!!"!!"!"#2"""3"!!"!"!""#2"""3"!!"!!"!"3""!"3"!"!""3"""#32"!"!"#2""!""#32"!"!"#2""""#32"!""3""""3""!"3"!""3"""#3"""3"3"""#2"""32"3"!"!"32"32"""#32"3"!"#23"3"""#32"3#2"!"!"#2"#3"!""3"3#2"" !"#23"#2""" "3"3"""32"32"!"""3""!"3""" "#32"""3"""" "#32"!""#2"!""" "#32"!""#2""" "3"!""3"!""" "3""!"3""""32""!"#3""""#32""!"#2"!"""#32"!"!"32""""#3"!""3"!"""3"!""3""""3"""#2""""32"""#2"!"""#32"""3""""#32"""3"!"""#3""!"#2""""3"""#2!"""3""!"32!"""32""3""""#32""#3!"""#32""#2"""3""31"" "3""3!"" "3""3"""#32""#1"" ""#32"#1"" ""#3"3"" "3"3"" "3"#332"#332"3"32"3#2"#23"3"32"#2"3#2"3"#2"3#2"3"#23"3"#23"32"3"""""""""""""""""""""Hypotenuse of a Right Triangle

    Given a "0798">right triangle, the hypotenuse is the side of the triangle opposite the right angle. (Note: See "079d">Side Opposite an Interior Angle.)

    EXAMPLE: In the following right triangle

    "0cd5"

    the hypotenuse is the side AC.

    @@0Similar Triangles

    Given two "0721">triangles and a one-to-one correspondence between their vertices such that all pairs of "0724">corresponding interior angles are "0723">congruent and the "079b">ratios of the measures of all pairs of "0725">corresponding sides are equal, the triangles are similar. In other words, two triangles are similar if they are of the same shape and not necessarily of the same size.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure

    "0cd6"

    the triangles ABC and PQR are similar.

    Ratio of Similitude

    The common "079b">ratio of "0725">corresponding sides of a pair of "07b8">similar triangles.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure

    "0cd7"

    the triangles ABC and PQR are similar. The ratio of similitude is 2 because every side of the first triangle is twice as long as the corresponding side of the second triangle.

    Square Root

    A square root of a "0bc2">nonnegative "0688">real number A is the real number B whose square is equal to A. In other words, B satisfies the relation B2 = A.

    Note that every positive real number has two square roots which has the same "0758">absolute value and opposite sign. (NOTE: See Absolute Value.) The principal square root of a nonnegative real number is the nonnegative square root. We denote the principal square root of the nonnegative real number x by the symbol

    "0cd8"

    It follows from the definition that

    "0cd9"

    Notice that the square root of a negative number is not defined. This is due to the fact that the square of every real number is nonnegative.

    EXAMPLE: The number 4 has two square roots, namely the numbers 2 and -2. The principal square root of 4 is

    "0cda"

    Perimeter of a Triangle

    The perimeter of a given "0721">triangle is the sum of the lengths of the "0720">sides of the triangle.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure the perimeter of the triangle is 5 + 5 + 4 = 14.

    "0cdb"

    r"""""#2"3"32"#2#2"#2"3"3"3"#3"#2"#2"#2"32"3"3"32"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"#3"#2"#2"#2"32"3"3"32"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"#3"#2"#2"#2"32"3"3"32"#2"#2"32"3"3"3"#3"#2"#2"#2"32"#3"3"32"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"#3"#2"#2"#2"32"3"3"32"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"#3"#2"#2"#2"32"3"3"32"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"#3"#2"#2"#2"32"3"3"32"#2"#2"#2"3"!"3""#2""#2""3"1"32"#2!"#2"#2!"3"3""3"#3"!"#2"#2"!"#2"32""3"3""32"#2"!"#2"#2"!"3"3""3"#3"!"#2"#2"!"#2"32""3"3""32"#2"!"#2"#2"!"3"3""3"#3"!"#2"#2"!"#2"32""3"3""32"#2"!"#2"#2"!"3"3""3"#3"!"#2"#2"!"#3"32""3"3""32"#2"!"#2"#2"!"3"3""3"#3"!"#2"#2"!"#2"32""3"3""32"#2"!"#2"#2""3"32""3"#3"!"#2"#3"!"#2"32""3"3""32"#2"!"#2"#2""3"3""3"#3"!"#2"#2"!"#2"32""3"3""32"#2"!"#2"#2""3"3""3"#332"33""!"""""""""""""h          Rational Expression

    A rational expression is any "0b93">algebraic expression which is written as a "0b1c">quotient of two expressions.

    EXAMPLE: The following is a rational expression.

    "0cdc"

    @Fraction

    A fraction is any symbol of the form<1>"0cdd"<1>where B 0.

    Denominator

    In a fraction ("07be">rational expression), the denominator is the expression below the fraction bar.

    EXAMPLE: In the rational expression

    "0cdc"

    the denominator is x.

    Integer

    An integer is any number in the "0b1e">set {..., -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,...}which extends out to the left and the right. The set of integers is denoted by the symbol Z.

    Numerator

    In a fraction ("07be">rational expression), the numerator is the expression above the fraction bar.

    EXAMPLE: In the rational expression

    "0cdc"

    the numerator is x + 5.

    Conversion Factors A-D

    "0cde">Acres to Hectares

    "0cdf">Acres to Square Feet

    "0ce0">Acres to Square Miles

    "0ce1">Atmospheres to CMS. of Mercury

    "0ce2">Bales to Reams (Paper Measure)

    "0ce3">Barrels to Hogshead

    "0ce4">Barrels to Gallons

    "0ce5">BTU to Horsepower-Hour

    "0ce6">BTU to Kilowatt Hour

    "0ce7">BTU/Hour to Watts

    "0ce8">Bushels to Cubic Inches

    "0ce9">Bushels (U.S.) to Hectoliters

    "0cea">Bushels to Pecks

    "0ceb">Celsius to Fahrenheit

    "0cec">Celsius to Kelvin

    "0ced">Centigrams to Grams

    "0cee">Centiliters to Liters

    "0cef">Centimeters to Inches

    "0cf0">Centimeters to Feet

    "0cf1">Centimeters to Meters

    "0cf2">Centuries to Years

    "0cf3">Circumference to Radians

    "0cf4">Cords to Cubic Feet

    "0cf5">Cubic Feet to Cords

    "0cf6">Cubic Feet to Cubic Inches

    "0cf7">Cubic Feet to Cubic Meters

    "0cf8">Cubic Feet to Cubic Yards

    "0cf9">Cubic Feet to Perches

    "0cfa">Cubic Inches to Cubic Feet

    "0cfb">Cubic Meters to Cubic Feet

    "0cfc">Cubic Meters to Cubic Yards

    "0cfd">Cubic Yards to Cubic Feet

    "0cfe">Cubic Yards to Cubic Meters

    "0cff">Cubit (Biblical) to Inches

    "0d00">Cubit (Greek) to Inches

    "0d01">Cubit (Roman) to Inches

    "0d02">Days to Hours

    "0d03">Days to Minutes

    "0d04">Days to Month (Calendar)

    "0d05">Days to Seconds

    "0d06">Days to Weeks

    "0d07">Days to Years (Common)

    "0d08">Days to Years (Leap)

    "0d09">Days (Working) to Hours

    "0d0a">Days (Working) to Hours (Working)

    "0d0b">Decades to Years

    "0d0c">Decagrams to Grams

    "0d0d">Decaliters to Liters

    "0d0e">Decameters to Meters

    "0d0f">Decigrams to Gram

    "0d10">Deciliters to Liters

    "0d11">Decimeters to Meters

    "0d12">Degrees to Radians

    "0d13">Degrees (on Meridian) to Miles

    "0d14">Drams to Ounces

    "0d15">Drams to Scruples

    "0d16">Dynes to Grams

    Conversion Factors E-K

    "0d17">Ephah (Biblical) to Liters

    "0d18">Fahrenheit to Celsius

    "0d19">Fathoms to Feet

    "0d1a">Feet to Inches

    "0d1b">Feet to Furlongs

    "0d1c">Feet to Meters

    "0d1d">Feet to Miles (Nautical)

    "0d1e">Feet to Miles (Statute)

    "0d1f">Feet to Rods

    "0d20">Feet to Yards

    "0d21">Feet/Second to Miles/Hour

    "0d22">Furlongs to Feet

    "0d23">Furlongs to Miles

    "0d24">Furlongs to Yards

    "0d25">Gallons (US) to Barrels

    "0d26">Gallons (US) to Liters

    "0d27">Gallons (US) to Pints

    "0d28">Gallons (US) to Quarts

    "0d29">Gills to Pints (Liquid Measure)

    "0d2a">Grains to Grams

    "0d2b">Grains to Pennyweights

    "0d2c">Grains to Scruples

    "0d2d">Grams to Centigrams

    "0d2e">Grams to Decagrams

    "0d2f">Grams to Decigrams

    "0d30">Grams to Grains

    "0d31">Grams to Hectograms

    "0d32">Grams to Kilograms

    "0d33">Grams to Milligrams

    "0d34">Grams to Ounces

    "0d35">Grams to Pounds

    "0d36">Grams to Shekels

    "0d37">Hectares to Acres

    "0d38">Hectograms to Grams

    "0d39">Hectoliters to Bushels (US)

    "0d3a">Hectoliters to Liters

    "0d3b">Hectometers to Meters

    "0d3c">Hogsheads to Barrels

    "0d3d">Horsepower to Watts

    "0d3e">Hours to Days

    "0d3f">Hours to Days (Working)

    "0d40">Hours to Minutes

    "0d41">Hours to Weeks (Working)

    "0d42">Hundredweights to Pounds

    "0d43">Inches to Centimeters

    "0d44">Inches to Cubits (Biblical)

    "0d45">Inches to Cubits (Greek)

    "0d46">Inches to Cubits (Roman)

    "0d47">Inches to Feet

    "0d48">Inches to Meters

    "0d49">Inches to Millimeters

    "0d4a">Kelvin to Celsius

    "0d4b">Kilograms to Grams

    "0d4c">Kilograms to Ounces

    "0d4d">Kilograms to Pounds

    "0d4e">Kiloliters to Liters

    "0d4f">Kilometers to Meters

    "0d50">Kilometers to Miles

    "0d51">Kilowatts to Horsepower

    "0d52">Knots to Nautical Mph

    "0d53">Knots to Statute Mph

    Conversion Factors L-P

    "0d54">Liters to Centiliters

    "0d55">Liters to Decaliters

    "0d56">Liters to Deciliters

    "0d57">Liters to Ephah (Biblical)

    "0d58">Liters to Gallons (US)

    "0d59">Liters to Hectoliters

    "0d5a">Liters to Kiloliters

    "0d5b">Liters to Milliliters

    "0d5c">Liters to Omers (Biblical)

    "0d5d">Liters to Pecks

    "0d5e">Liters to Pints (Dry)

    "0d5f">Liters to Pints (Liquid)

    "0d60">Liters to Quarts (Dry)

    "0d61">Liters to Quarts (Liquid)

    "0d62">Meters to Centimeters

    "0d63">Meters to Decameters

    "0d64">Meters to Decimeters

    "0d65">Meters to Feet

    "0d66">Meters to Hectometers

    "0d67">Meters to Inches

    "0d68">Meters to Kilometers

    "0d69">Meters to Miles

    "0d6a">Meters to Millimeters

    "0d6b">Meters to Yards

    "0d6c">Metric Tons to Tons (Long)

    "0d6d">Metric Tons to Tons (Short)

    "0d6e">Miles to Degrees (on Meridian)

    "0d6f">Miles to Feet

    "0d70">Miles to Kilometers

    "0d71">Miles (Nautical) to Miles (Statute)

    "0d72">Miles (Statute) to Miles (Nautical)

    "0d73">Miles/Hour to Feet/Minute

    "0d74">Milligrams to Grams

    "0d75">Milliliters to Liters

    "0d76">Millimeters to Inches

    "0d77">Millimeters to Meters

    "0d78">Minutes to Hours

    "0d79">Minutes to Seconds

    "0d7a">Months (Calendar) to Days

    "0d7b">Months (Calendar) to Hours

    "0d7c">Months (Calendar) to Minutes

    "0d7d">Months (Calendar) to Seconds

    "0d7e">Months to Years

    "0d7f">Omers (Biblical) to Liters

    "0d80">Ounces to Drams

    "0d81">Ounces to Grams

    "0d82">Ounces to Pennyweights

    "0d83">Ounces to Pounds

    "0d84">Ounces to Shekels

    "0d85">Ounces (Troy) to Ounces

    "0d86">Pecks to Bushels

    "0d87">Pecks to Liters

    "0d88">Pecks to Quarts

    "0d89">Pennyweights to Grains

    "0d8a">Pennyweights to Ounces

    "0d8b">Perches to Cubic Feet

    "0d8c">Pints to Gallons

    "0d8d">Pints to Gills

    Conversion Factors P-Z

    "0d8e">Pints (Dry) to Liters

    "0d8f">Pints (Liquid) to Liters

    "0d90">Pints to Quarts

    "0d91">Pounds to Hundredweights

    "0d92">Pounds (AP or T) to Kilograms

    "0d93">Pounds (AVDP) to Kilograms

    "0d94">Pounds to Ounces

    "0d95">Pounds to Tons

    "0d96">Pounds to Tons (Long)

    "0d97">Quarts to Gallons

    "0d98">Quarts (Dry) to Liters

    "0d99">Quarts (Liquid) to Liters

    "0d9a">Quarts to Pecks

    "0d9b">Quarts to Pints

    "0d9c">Quires to Reams (Classic)

    "0d9d">Quires to Reams (Common)

    "0d9e">Quires to Sheets

    "0d9f">Radians to Degrees

    "0da0">Reams to Bales

    "0da1">Reams to Quires

    "0da2">Reams (Classic) to Sheets

    "0da3">Reams (Common) to Sheets

    "0da4">Rods to Feet

    "0da5">Rods to Meters

    "0da6">Rods to Yards

    "0da7">Scruples to Drams

    "0da8">Scruples to Grains

    "0da9">Seconds to Minutes

    "0daa">Sheets to Quire

    "0dab">Sheets to Reams (Classic)

    "0dac">Sheets to Reams (Common)

    "0dad">Shekels to Grams

    "0dae">Shekels to Ounces

    "0daf">Square Feet to Square Meters

    "0db0">Square Kilometers to Square Miles

    "0db1">Square Meters to Square Feet

    "0db2">Square Meters to Square Yards

    "0db3">Square Miles to Square Kilometers

    "0db4">Square Yards to Square Meters

    "0db5">Tons (Long) to Metric Tons

    "0db6">Tons (Short) to Metric Tons

    "0db7">Tons to Pounds

    "0db8">Tons (Long) to Pounds

    "0db9">Watts to BTU/Hour

    "0dba">Watts to Horsepower

    "0dbb">Weeks to Days

    "0dbc">Yards to Feet

    "0dbd">Yards to Meters

    "0dbe">Yards to Miles

    "0dbf">Yards to Rods

    "0dc0">Years to Centuries

    "0dc1">Years to Decades

    "0dc2">Years (Common) to Days

    "0dc3">Years (Common) to Hours

    "0dc4">Years (Common) to Minutes

    "0dc5">Years (Common) to Seconds

    "0dc6">Years (Leap) to Days

    Mercury

    Location in Solar System

    1 from Sun

    Mean Distance from the Sun

    36.0 million miles

    Diameter (Equatorial)

    3,031 miles

    Mass Relative to Earth

    0.055

    Density Relative to Water

    5.43

    Volume Relative to Earth

    0.06

    Revolution Around the Sun

    88.0 days

    Rotation Period

    58.65 days

    Mean Orbital Speed

    29.8 miles per second

    Inclination of Orbit

    (relative to Earth)

    7.0

    Gravity Relative to Earth

    0.38

    Min. Distance from Earth

    49.1 million miles

    Max. Distance from Earth

    136.9 million miles

    "0dc7">Escape Velocity

    9,360 miles per hour

    Moons

    None

    Surface Temperature

    350/-170 degrees Celsius

    Atmosphere

    None

    Made of

    Rock

    Rings

    No

    Length of Year (Earth Time)

    88 days

    Length of Day (Earth Time)

    176 hours

    Weight of Object (100 lbs on Earth)

    37 pounds Venus

    Location in Solar System

    2 from the sun

    Mean Distance from the Sun

    67.1 million miles

    Diameter (Equatorial)

    7,521 miles

    Mass Relative to Earth

    0.814

    Density Relative to Water

    5.24

    Volume Relative to Earth

    0.86

    Revolution Around the Sun

    224.7 days

    Rotation Period

    243.0 days

    Mean Orbital Speed

    21.7 miles per second

    Inclination of Orbit

    (Relative to Earth)

    3.4

    Gravity Relative to Earth

    0.90

    Min. Distance from Earth

    25.7 million miles

    Max. Distance from Earth

    160.9 million miles

    "0dc7">Escape Velocity

    23,040 miles per hour

    Moons

    None

    Surface Temperature

    480 degrees Celsius

    Atmosphere

    Mainly carbon monoxide

    Made of

    Rock

    Rings

    No

    Length of Year (Earth Time)

    225 days

    Length of Day (Earth Time)

    116.7 days

    Weight of Object (100 lbs on Earth)

    88 pounds Earth

    Location in Solar System

    3 from the sun

    Mean Distance from the Sun

    92.9 million miles

    Diameter (Equatorial)

    7,926 miles

    Mass

    5,887,613,230 trillion tons

    Density Relative to Water

    5.52

    Volume Relative

    260 billion cubic miles

    Revolution Around the Sun

    365.26 days

    Rotation Period

    0.9973 days

    Mean Orbital Speed

    18.6 miles per second

    Gravity Relative to Earth

    1.00

    Min. Distance from Earth

    N/A

    Max. Distance from Earth

    N/A

    "0dc7">Escape Velocity

    25,000 miles per hour

    Area

    196,950,769 square miles

    Land Surface Area

    57,469,928 square miles

    Water Surface Area

    139,480,841 square

    Estimated Age

    At least 4.5 billion years

    Moons

    Moon

    Atmosphere

    Nitrogen and Oxygen

    Made of

    Rock

    Rings

    No

    Length of Year (Earth Time)

    365 days

    Length of Day (Earth Time)

    24 hours

    Weight of Object (100 lbs on Earth)

    100 pounds Mars

    Location in Solar System

    4 from Sun

    Mean Distance from the Sun

    141.5 million miles

    Diameter (Equatorial)

    4,221 miles

    Mass Relative to Earth

    0.107

    Density Relative to Water

    3.93

    Volume Relative to Earth

    0.15

    Revolution Around the Sun

    687.0 days

    Rotation Period

    1.0260 days

    Mean Orbital Speed

    14.9 miles per second

    Inclination of Orbit

    (relative to Earth)

    1.8

    Gravity Relative to Earth

    0.38

    Min. Distance from Earth

    34 million miles

    Max. Distance from Earth

    247 million miles

    "0dc7">Escape Velocity

    14,400 miles per hour

    Moons

    Phobos, Deimos

    Surface Temperature

    -20/-200 degrees Celsius

    Atmosphere

    Very thin, mainly carbon dioxide

    Made of

    Rock

    Rings

    No

    Length of Year (Earth Time)

    687 days

    Length of Day (Earth Time)

    24.6 hours

    Weight of Object (100 lbs on Earth)

    37 pounds Jupiter

    Location in Solar System

    5 from Sun

    Mean Distance from the Sun

    483.4 million miles

    Diameter (Equatorial)

    88,734 miles

    Mass Relative to Earth

    317.8 times

    Density Relative to Water

    1.33 times

    Volume Relative to Earth

    1,323 times

    Revolution Around the Sun

    11.86 years

    Rotation Period

    0.410 days

    Mean Orbital Speed

    8 miles per second

    Inclination of Orbit

    (relative to Earth)

    1.3

    Gravity Relative to Earth

    2.53 times

    Min. Distance from Earth

    362 million miles

    Max. Distance from Earth

    597 million miles

    "0dc7">Escape Velocity

    133,200 miles per hour

    Moons

    Metis, Adrastea, Amalthea, Thebe, Io, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto, Leda, Himalia, Lysithea, Elara, Ananke, Carme, Pasiphae, Sinope

    Temperature at Cloud Top

    -150 degrees Celsius

    Atmosphere

    Hydrogen and Helium

    Made of

    Liquid and Gas

    Rings

    Yes

    Length of Year (Earth Time)

    11.9 years

    Length of Day (Earth Time)

    9.9 hours

    Weight of Object (100 lbs on Earth)

    234 pounds Saturn

    Location in Solar System

    6 from Sun

    Mean Distance from the Sun

    886.7 million miles

    Diameter (Equatorial)

    74,566 miles

    Mass Relative to Earth

    95.16 times

    Density Relative to Water

    0.71 times

    Volume Relative to Earth

    752 times

    Revolution Around the Sun

    29.46 years

    Rotation Period

    0.427 days

    Mean Orbital Speed

    6 miles per second

    Inclination of Orbit

    (relative to Earth)

    2.5

    Gravity Relative to Earth

    1.07 times

    Min. Distance from Earth

    773 million miles

    Max. Distance from Earth

    1.023 billion miles

    "0dc7">Escape Velocity

    79,200 miles per hour

    Moons

    Atlas, 1980s27, 1980s26, Janus, Epimetheus, Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Telesto, Calypso, Dione, 1980s6, Rhea, Titan, Hyperion, Iapetus, Phoebe

    Temperature at Cloud Top

    -180 degrees Celsius

    Atmosphere

    Hydrogen, Helium

    Made of

    Liquid and Gas

    Rings

    Yes

    Length of Year (Earth Time)

    29.5 years

    Length of Day (Earth Time)

    10.4 hours

    Weight of Object (100 lbs on Earth)

    115 pounds Uranus

    Location in Solar System

    7 from Sun

    Mean Distance from the Sun

    1,782.7 million miles

    Diameter (Equatorial)

    31,566 miles

    Mass Relative to Earth

    14.55 times

    Density Relative to Water

    1.31 times

    Volume Relative to Earth

    64 times

    Revolution Around the Sun

    84.01 years

    Rotation Period

    0.45 days

    Mean Orbital Speed

    4.2 miles per second

    Inclination of Orbit

    (relative to Earth)

    0.8

    Gravity Relative to Earth

    0.92 times

    Min. Distance from Earth

    1.594 billion miles

    Max. Distance from Earth

    1.946 billion miles

    "0dc7">Escape Velocity

    46,800 miles per hour

    Moons

    Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, Oberon (In addition, 13 recently discovered smaller moons)

    Surface Temperature

    -323 degrees Fahrenheit

    Atmosphere

    Helium, Hydrogen, and Methane

    Made of

    Rock

    Rings

    Yes

    Length of Year (Earth Time)

    84 years

    Length of Day (Earth Time)

    24 hours

    Weight of Object (100 lbs on Earth)

    91 pounds Neptune

    Location in Solar System

    8 from Sun

    Mean Distance from the Sun

    2,794.3 million miles

    Diameter (Equatorial)

    30,199 miles

    Mass Relative to Earth

    17.23 times

    Density Relative to Water

    1.77 times

    Volume Relative to Earth

    54 times

    Revolution Around the Sun

    164.8 years

    Rotation Period

    0.67 days

    Mean Orbital Speed

    3.3 miles per second

    Inclination of Orbit

    (relative to Earth)

    1.8

    Gravity Relative to Earth

    1.19 times

    Min. Distance from Earth

    2.654 billion miles

    Max. Distance from Earth

    2.891 billion miles

    "0dc7">Escape Velocity

    50,400 miles per hour

    Moons

    Triton, Nereid (6 additional moons discovered by Voyager 2 Space Probe)

    Surface Temperature

    -330 degrees Fahrenheit

    Atmosphere

    Helium, Hydrogen, and Methane

    Made of

    Frozen Gas

    Rings

    Yes

    Length of Year (Earth Time)

    164 years

    Length of Day (Earth Time)

    18.5 hours

    Weight of Object (100 lbs on Earth)

    118 pounds Pluto

    Location in Solar System

    9 from Sun

    Mean Distance from the Sun

    3,666.1 million miles

    Diameter (Equatorial)

    1,864 miles

    Mass Relative to Earth

    .0026 times

    Density Relative to Water

    1.1 times

    Volume Relative to Earth

    0.01 times

    Revolution Around the Sun

    247.7 years

    Rotation Period

    6.3867 days

    Mean Orbital Speed

    2.9 miles per second

    Inclination of Orbit

    (relative to Earth)

    17.2

    Gravity Relative to Earth

    0.05 times

    Min. Distance from Earth

    2.605 billion miles

    Max. Distance from Earth

    4.506 billion miles

    "0dc7">Escape Velocity

    5,400 miles per hour

    Moons

    Charon

    Surface Temperature

    -369 degrees Fahrenheit

    Atmosphere

    None detected

    Made of

    Rock and ice

    Rings

    No

    Length of Year (Earth Time)

    248 years

    Length of Day (Earth Time)

    6.4 hours

    Weight of Object (100 lbs on Earth)

    Not known Ten Closest Comets to Earth <2> 4>

    Name

    Date

    Distance<1>(miles)

    Lexell

    July 1, 1770

    874,200

    Tempel- Tuttle

    October 26, 1366

    1.4 mill

    Halley

    April 10, 1837

    2.1 mill

    Biela

    December 9, 1805

    2.9 mill

    Grischow

    February 8, 1743

    3.1 mill

    Pons-Winnecke

    June 26, 1927

    3.4 mill

    La Hire

    April 20, 1702

    3.6 mill

    Schwass-mann-Wachmann

    May 31, 1930

    3.7 mill

    Cassini

    January 8, 1760

    3.8 mill

    Schweizer

    April 29, 1853

    4 mill XBBB΄Bf`f`ff`f`f`f`ff`ff`f`f`ff`fБf`f`fАfff Ўfff`ݏ`f`f` Ў`ff` f`f`f`Ѝfff`ff`f fff ݋ff`fЈff`f`ЊЇ`ffЋІ``f` ݆`f`f`Њ``ff`f``f``f``f`f```ff`fffffff`f`ff`ff`ff`` pff``` p`f` `f``pp ݃f``fz̬f```zН`` `f``` z؂`` ʬ ݂݈``D` zp`D@ ``D pzʧD`f`Dzf݈fD@p`f`Df`f````f````f```f```````f`f`ff````ff``fff```ff````ff`f`f`f````f``ff``f``ff`f`fff` ```f`ff````ff``f` ن Df ```fU#2 A@k``f`f UY3#ADf````fY3"3Df `f` Y#"3D``U#20A` ```` ن ݄`D```f` ```` ````  ```` `````` ```````` ```` ``` ```````````````````````````Proxima Centauri

    Distance in miles

    24,793 billion

    Distance in kilometers

    39,923 billion

    Distance in light years

    4.22 Alpha Centauri

    Distance in miles

    25,556 billion

    Distance in kilometers

    41,154 billion

    Distance in light years

    4.35 Barnard's Star

    Distance in miles

    35,133 billion

    Distance in kilometers

    56,574 billion

    Distance in light years

    5.98 Wolf 359

    Distance in miles

    45,531 billion

    Distance in kilometers

    73,319 billion

    Distance in light years

    7.75

    Lalande 21185

    Distance in miles

    48,293 billion

    Distance in kilometers

    77,765 billion

    Distance in light years

    8.22

    Luyten 726-8

    Distance in miles

    49,526 billion

    Distance in kilometers

    79,752 billion

    Distance in light years

    8.43 Sirius

    Distance in miles

    50,819 billion

    Distance in kilometers

    81,833 billion

    Distance in light years

    8.64 Ross 154

    Distance in miles

    55,519 billion

    Distance in kilometers

    89,401 billion

    Distance in light years

    9.45

    Ross 248

    Distance in miles

    61,100 billion

    Distance in kilometers

    98,389 billion

    Distance in light years

    10.40

    Epsilon Eridani

    Distance in miles

    63,450 billion

    Distance in kilometers

    102,173 billion

    Distance in light years

    10.80

    Sirius

    Constellation: Canis Minor

    Magnitude: -1.6

    Distance (light years): 8

    Canopus

    Constellation: Carina

    Magnitude: -0.9

    Distance (light years): 650

    Alpha Centauri

    Constellation: Centaurus

    Magnitude: +0.1

    Distance (light years): 4

    Vega

    Constellation: Lyra

    Magnitude: 0.1

    Distance (light years): 23

    Capella

    Constellation: Auriga

    Magnitude: 0.2

    Distance (light years): 42

    Arcturus <1>

    Constellation: Botes

    Magnitude: 0.2

    Distance (light years): 32

    Rigel

    Constellation: Orion

    Magnitude: 0.3

    Distance (light years): 545

    Procyon

    Constellation: Canis Minor

    Magnitude: 0.5

    Distance (light years): 10

    Achernar

    Constellation: Eridanus

    Magnitude: 0.6

    Distance (light years): 70

    Beta Centauri

    Constellation: Centaurus

    Magnitude: 0.9

    Distance (light years): 130

    Altair

    Constellation: Aquila

    Magnitude: 0.9

    Distance (light years): 18

    Betelgeuse

    Constellation: Orion

    Magnitude: 0.9

    Distance (light years): 600

    Aldebaran

    Constellation: Taurus

    Magnitude: 1.1

    Distance (light years): 54

    Spica

    Constellation: Virgo

    Magnitude: 1.2

    Distance (light years): 190

    Pollux

    Constellation: Gemini

    Magnitude: 1.2

    Distance (light years): 31

    Antares

    Constellation: Scorpius

    Magnitude: 1.2

    Distance (light years): 170

    Fomalhaut

    Constellation: Piscis Austrinus

    Magnitude: 1.3

    Distance (light years): 27

    Deneb

    Constellation: Cygnus

    Magnitude: 1.3

    Distance (light years): 465

    Regulus

    Constellation: Leo

    Magnitude: 1.3

    Distance (light years): 70

    Beta Crucis

    Constellation: Crux

    Magnitude: 1.5

    Distance (light years): 465

    Alpha-one Crucis

    Constellation: Crux

    Magnitude: 1.6

    Distance (light years): 150

    Castor

    Constellation: Gemini

    Magnitude: 1.6

    Distance (light years): 44

    Gamma Crucis

    Constellation: Crux

    Magnitude: 1.6

    Distance (light years): -

    Epsilon Canis Majoris

    Constellation: Canis Major

    Magnitude: 1.6

    Distance (light years): 325

    Epsilon Ursae Majoris

    Constellation: Ursa Major

    Magnitude: 1.7

    Distance (light years): 50

    Bellatrix

    Constellation: Orion

    Magnitude: 1.7

    Distance (light years): 215

    Lambda Scorpii

    Constellation: Scorpius

    Magnitude: 1.7

    Distance (light years): 205

    Epsilon Carinae

    Constellation: Carina

    Magnitude: 1.7

    Distance (light years): 325

    Ceres

    Year of discovery

    1801

    Mean distance from the sun

    257.0 million miles

    Orbital period

    4.60 years

    Diameter

    485 miles

    Magnitude

    7.4 Pallas

    Year of discovery

    1802

    Mean distance from the sun

    257.4 million miles

    Orbital period

    4.61 years

    Diameter

    304 miles

    Magnitude

    8.0 Vesta

    Year of discovery

    1807

    Mean distance from the sun

    219.3 million miles

    Orbital period

    3.63 years

    Diameter

    243 miles

    Magnitude

    6.5 Hebe

    Year of discovery

    1847

    Mean distance from the sun

    225.2 million miles

    Orbital period

    3.78 years

    Diameter

    121 miles

    Magnitude

    8.5 Iris

    Year of discovery

    1847

    Mean distance from the sun

    221.4 million miles

    Orbital period

    3.68 years

    Diameter

    121 miles

    Magnitude

    8.4 Juno

    Year of discovery

    1804

    Mean distance from the sun

    247.8 million miles

    Orbital period

    4.36 years

    Diameter

    118 miles

    Magnitude

    8.7 Metis

    Year of discovery

    1848

    Mean distance from the sun

    221.7 million miles

    Orbital period

    3.69 years

    Diameter

    78 miles

    Magnitude

    8.9 Flora

    Year of discovery

    1847

    Mean distance from the sun

    204.4 million miles

    Orbital period

    3.27 years

    Diameter

    56 miles

    Magnitude

    8.9 Astraea

    Year of discovery

    1845

    Mean distance from the sun

    239.3 million miles

    Orbital period

    4.14 years

    Diameter

    50 miles

    Magnitude

    9.9 Hygeia

    Year of discovery

    1849

    Mean distance from the sun

    222.6 million miles

    Orbital period

    5.59 years

    Diameter

    40 miles

    Magnitude

    9.5 Arend

    Discovered: 1951

    Last Appearance: 1991

    Next Appearance: 1999

    Period (in years): 7.99

    Ashbrook-Jackson

    Discovered: 1948

    Last Appearance: 1993

    Next Appearance: 2001

    Period (in years): 7.49

    Borrelly

    Discovered: 1904

    Last Appearance: 1994

    Next Appearance: 2001

    Period (in years): 6.88

    Brooks 2

    Discovered: 1889

    Last Appearance: 1994

    Next Appearance: 2000

    Period (in years): 6.89

    Bus

    Discovered: 1981

    Last Appearance: 1994

    Next Appearance: 2000

    Period (in years): 6.52

    Clark

    Discovered: 1973

    Last Appearance: 1995

    Next Appearance: 2000

    Period (in years): 5.50

    Comas Sol

    Discovered: 1926

    Last Appearance: 1996

    Next Appearance: 2005

    Period (in years): 8.83

    Daniel

    Discovered: 1909

    Last Appearance: 1992

    Next Appearance: 2000

    Period (in years): 7.06

    D'Arrest

    Discovered: 1851

    Last Appearance: 1995

    Next Appearance: 2002

    Period (in years): 6.39

    du Toit

    Discovered: 1944

    Last Appearance: 1974

    Next Appearance: 2004

    Period (in years): 15.00

    Faye

    Discovered: 1843

    Last Appearance: 1999

    Next Appearance: 2006

    Period (in years): 7.34

    Finlay

    Discovered: 1886

    Last Appearance: 1995

    Next Appearance: 2002

    Period (in years): 6.95

    Forbes

    Discovered: 1929

    Last Appearance: 1999

    Next Appearance: 2005

    Period (in years): 6.13

    Gehrels 1

    Discovered: 1972

    Last Appearance: 1987

    Next Appearance: 2002

    Period (in years): 15.10

    Gehrels 2

    Discovered: 1975

    Last Appearance: 1993

    Next Appearance: 2001

    Period (in years): 8.11

    Giclas

    Discovered: 1978

    Last Appearance: 1999

    Next Appearance: 2006

    Period (in years): 6.96

    Gunn

    Discovered: 1970

    Last Appearance: 1996

    Next Appearance: 2002

    Period (in years): 6.83

    Halley

    Discovered: 240 BC

    Last Appearance: 1986

    Next Appearance: 2061

    Period (in years): 76.00

    Harrington

    Discovered: 1953

    Last Appearance: 1994

    Next Appearance: 2001

    Period (in years): 6.78

    Harrington- Abell

    Discovered: 1955

    Last Appearance: 1999

    Next Appearance: 2007

    Period (in years): 7.59

    Herschel- Rigollet

    Discovered: 1788

    Last Appearance: 1939

    Next Appearance: 2092

    Period (in years): 155.00

    Holmes

    Discovered: 1892

    Last Appearance: 1993

    Next Appearance: 2000

    Period (in years): 7.09

    Honda-Mrks- Pajduskov

    Discovered: 1848

    Last Appearance: 1995

    Next Appearance: 2001

    Period (in years): 5.30

    Jackson- Neujmin

    Discovered: 1936

    Last Appearance: 1995

    Next Appearance: 2004

    Period (in years): 8.24

    Kearns- Kwee

    Discovered: 1963

    Last Appearance: 1999

    Next Appearance: 2008

    Period (in years): 8.96

    Kohoutek

    Discovered: 1975

    Last Appearance: 1994

    Next Appearance: 2001

    Period (in years): 6.65

    Kopff

    Discovered: 1906

    Last Appearance: 1996

    Next Appearance: 2002

    Period (in years): 6.45

    Kowal 1

    Discovered: 1977

    Last Appearance: 1992

    Next Appearance: 2007

    Period (in years): 15.02

    Machholz 1

    Discovered: 1986

    Last Appearance: 1996

    Next Appearance: 2001

    Period (in years): 5.24

    Neujmin 1

    Discovered: 1913

    Last Appearance: 1984

    Next Appearance: 2002

    Period (in years): 18.21

    Neujmin 3

    Discovered: 1929

    Last Appearance: 1993

    Next Appearance: 2004

    Period (in years): 10.63

    Olbers

    Discovered: 1819

    Last Appearance: 1956

    Next Appearance: 2024

    Period (in years): 69.56

    Pons-Brooks

    Discovered: 1812

    Last Appearance: 1954

    Next Appearance: 2024

    Period (in years): 70.92

    Reinmuth 1

    Discovered: 1928

    Last Appearance: 1995

    Next Appearance: 2002

    Period (in years): 7.31

    Reinmuth 2

    Discovered: 1947

    Last Appearance: 1994

    Next Appearance: 2001

    Period (in years): 6.64

    Russell 2

    Discovered: 1980

    Last Appearance: 1994

    Next Appearance: 2002

    Period (in years): 7.38

    Sanguin

    Discovered: 1977

    Last Appearance: 1990

    Next Appearance: 2002

    Period (in years): 12.50

    Schaumasse

    Discovered: 1911

    Last Appearance: 1993

    Next Appearance: 2001

    Period (in years): 8.22

    Schwassman- Wachmann 1

    Discovered: 1927

    Last Appearance: 1989

    Next Appearance: 2004

    Period (in years): 14.85

    Schwassman- Wachmann 2

    Discovered: 1929

    Last Appearance: 1994

    Next Appearance: 2002

    Period (in years): 6.39

    Schwassman- Wachmann 3

    Discovered: 1930

    Last Appearance: 1995

    Next Appearance: 2001

    Period (in years): 5.34

    Shajin- Schaldach

    Discovered: 1949

    Last Appearance: 1993

    Next Appearance: 2001

    Period (in years): 7.49

    Slaughter- Burnham

    Discovered: 1958

    Last Appearance: 1993

    Next Appearance: 2005

    Period (in years): 11.59

    Smirnova- Chernukh

    Discovered: 1975

    Last Appearance: 1992

    Next Appearance: 2001

    Period (in years): 8.57

    Swift- Gehrels

    Discovered: 1889

    Last Appearance: 1991

    Next Appearance: 2000

    Period (in years): 9.21

    Tempel 1

    Discovered: 1867

    Last Appearance: 1994

    Next Appearance: 2000

    Period (in years): 5.50

    Tempel 2

    Discovered: 1873

    Last Appearance: 1999

    Next Appearance: 2005

    Period (in years): 5.48

    Tsuchinshan 2

    Discovered: 1965

    Last Appearance: 1999

    Next Appearance: 2006

    Period (in years): 6.82

    Tuttle

    Discovered: 1790

    Last Appearance: 1994

    Next Appearance: 2008

    Period (in years): 13.51

    Tuttle- Giacobini- Kresak

    Discovered: 1858

    Last Appearance: 1995

    Next Appearance: 2001

    Period (in years): 5.46

    Visl

    Discovered: 1939

    Last Appearance: 1993

    Next Appearance: 2004

    Period (in years): 10.80

    West- Kohoutek- Ikemura

    Discovered: 1975

    Last Appearance: 1993

    Next Appearance: 2000

    Period (in years): 6.41

    Whipple

    Discovered: 1933

    Last Appearance: 1994

    Next Appearance: 2003

    Period (in years): 8.53

    Wild 1

    Discovered: 1960

    Last Appearance: 1999

    Next Appearance: 2012

    Period (in years): 13.30

    Wild 2

    Discovered: 1980

    Last Appearance: 1994

    Next Appearance: 2001

    Period (in years): 6.91

    Wolf

    Discovered: 1884

    Last Appearance: 1992

    Next Appearance: 2000

    Period (in years): 8.25

    Phases of the Moon

    "0dc8"

    Chemistry Terms and Definitions A-B

    "0dc9">Absolute Zero

    "0dca">Arrhenius Acid/Base Definition

    "0dcb">Actinides

    "0dcc">Activation Energy

    "0dcd">Alkali Earth Metal

    "0dce">Alkali Metal

    "0dcf">Anion

    "0dd0">Antimatter

    "0dd1">Atom

    "0dd2">Atomic Mass

    "0dd3">Atomic Mass Unit

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    "0150">Avogadros Law

    "0dd6">Avogadros Number

    "0dd7">Boiling Point

    "0dd8">Bond Energy

    "0151">Boyles Law

    Chemistry Terms and Definitions C-D

    "084d">Calorie (food)

    "084c">calorie

    "0dd9">Catalyst

    "0dda">Cation

    "0152">Charless Law

    "0ddb">Chemical Equations

    "0ddc">Chemical Formulas

    "0ddd">Chemical Properties

    "0dde">Chemical Symbols

    "0ddf">Chemiluminescence

    "0de0">Colloid

    "0de1">Colligative Property

    "0de2">Compound

    "0147">Concentration

    "0de3">Covalent Bond

    "0153">Daltons Law of Partial Pressures

    "0de4">Decomposition

    "0de5">Density

    "0de6">Diatomic

    "0140">Dimensions, Units, and Symbols

    "0de7">Dissociation

    "0de8">Dissociation Energy

    Chemistry Terms and Definitions E-F

    "0de9">Electron

    "0dea">Electronegativity

    "0deb">Element

    "0dec">Empirical Formula

    "0ded">Endothermic Reaction

    "0145">Energy

    "0dee">Energy Levels

    "0def">Enthalpy

    "0df0">Exothermic Reaction

    "0df1">Fahrenheit

    "0df2">Filling Orbital

    "0df3">First Ionization Potential

    "0df4">Formula Weight

    "0df5">Fractional Distillation

    "0df6">Freezing Point

    Chemistry Terms and Definitions G-H

    "014c">Gas

    "0154">General Gas Law

    "0155">Grahams Law of Effusion

    "0df7">Group

    "0df8">Half-life

    "0df9">Halogens

    "0146">Heat

    "0dfa">Heat of Fusion

    "0dfb">Heat of Vaporization

    "0dfc">Henderson - Hasselbach Equation

    "0dfd">Heterogeneous

    "0dfe">Homogeneous

    "0dff">Hydrogen Bond

    Chemistry Terms and Definitions I-L

    "0156">Ideal Gas Law

    "0e00">Indicator

    "0e01">Inert Gasses

    "0e02">Inner-Transition Metals

    "0e03">Inert

    "0e04">Ion

    "0e05">Ionic Bond

    "0e06">Ionization Energies

    "0e07">Irreversible Reaction

    "0e08">Isotope

    "0e09">Kelvin

    "0e0a">Kinetic Energy

    "0e0b">Kinetic-Molecular Theory

    "0e0c">Lanthanides

    "0e0d">Law of Conservation of Energy

    "0e0e">Law of Conservation of Matter

    "0e0f">Law of Multiple Proportions

    "014b">Liquids

    Chemistry Terms and Definitions M-N

    "0e10">Mass Spectrometer

    "0e11">Melting Point

    "0e12">Metals

    "0e13">Metalloid

    "0141">Metric prefixes

    "0e14">Molality

    "0e15">Molarity

    "08bf">Mole

    "0e16">Molecular Formula

    "0e17">Molecular Mass

    "0e18">Molecule

    "0e19">Monatomic

    "0e1a">Neutron

    "0e1b">Noble Gases

    "0e1c">Normality

    "0e1d">Nucleon

    Chemistry Terms and Definitions O-P

    "0e1e">Orbitals

    "0e1f">Oxidation

    "0e20">Oxidation Numbers

    "0e21">Pauli Exclusion Principle

    "0e22">Percentage Composition

    "0e23">Periodic Law

    "0e24">Periodic Table

    "0e25">Periods

    "0e26">pH

    "0e27">Physical Properties

    "0142">Pressure

    "0e28">Positron

    "013c">Proportionality

    "0e29">Proton

    Chemistry Terms and Definitions Q-S

    "0e2a">Quantum Numbers

    "0e2b">Radioactivity

    "0e2c">Rare Earth Metals

    "0e2d">Rate Determining Step

    "0e2e">Reduction

    "0e2f">Reversible Reaction

    "0e30">Saturation Point

    "0136">Scientific Notation

    "014a">Solids

    "0e31">Solubility

    "084e">Solute

    "0e32">Solvent

    "084b">Specific Gravity

    "0e33">Specific Heat

    "0e34">Spectroscopy

    "0e35">Supersaturation

    Chemistry Terms and Definitions T-Z

    "0144">Temperature

    "0e36">Transactinides

    "0e37">Transition Metals

    "014d">Triple Point

    "0e38">Van der Waals Forces

    "0e39">Vapor pressure

    "0e3a">Volatile

    "0e3b">Volatility

    "0e3c">X-rays

    X(  

    dummy file

    h( @(X(Specific Gravity

    Specific gravity is the density of a material compared to the density of water.

    Calorie

    Calorie is defined as the amount of heat that increases the temperature of a gram of liquid water one degree Celsius.

    Calorie(food)

    Calorie is one thousand heat calories of usable food energy.

    Solute

    A solute is a substance that is dissolved or dispersed into another substance, usually liquid.

    X  Francium

    Symbol

    Fr

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    87

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    223.0197

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +1

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    0.89

    State at Room Temperature

    Liquid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    300

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    950

    Chemical Properties of Francium

    The largest element in Group 1 and is radioactive. It is the most active of the alkali metals. It is a natural decay product of actinium.

    Cesium

    Symbol

    Cs

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    55

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    132.90543

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +1

    "0dea">Electronegativity , Pauling

    0.79

    State at Room Temperature

    solid

    "0e11">Melting Point , degrees Kelvin

    301.6

    "0dd7">Boiling Point , degrees Kelvin

    951.6

    Chemical Properties of Cesium

    Cesium is a Group 1element used in some photoelectric cells and as a catalyst in organicreactions. Cesium salts are important phosphors (glowing materials) on thefront of phosphorescent color television receivers.

    Rubidium

    Symbol

    Rb

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    37

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    85.4678

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +1

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    0.82

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    312.2

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    961

    Chemical Properties of Rubidium

    The name of rubidium comes from the deep red flame test it gives. As it is an alkali metal, Group 1, it makes similar compounds to sodium and potassium. A very soft metal element, it reacts violently with water.

    Potassium

    Symbol

    K

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    19

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    39.0983

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +1

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    0.82

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    336.8

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    1047

    Chemical Properties of Potassium

    Potassium metal is a very soft metal that quickly becomes tarnished in air. Potassium is a Group 1 element, an alkali metal. It reacts violently in water, burning with a bright blue-white flame. Potassium ions are required by all living things.

    Sodium

    Symbol

    Na

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    11

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    22.989768

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +1

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    0.93

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    370.96

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    1156.1

    Chemical Properties of Sodium

    Sodium is the most abundant of the alkali metals (Group 1) in the earths crusts, but it is never found in the native state. Sodium chloride, table salt, is its most common compound. Almost all the salts of sodium are soluble in water. Sodium ions are needed by most living things.

    Lithium

    Symbol

    Li

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    3

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    6.941

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +1

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    0.98

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    553.69

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    1118.15

    Chemical Properties of Lithium

    Lithium reacts with water and so it is not found free in nature. As a metal element it is very soft and it burns in air to form the lithium oxide. Industrially it is used in alloys to increase the tensile strength of the mixture. Medically, lithium is used to treat bi-polar disorder.

    Hydrogen

    Symbol

    H

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    1

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    1.00794

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +1, -1

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    2.2

    State at Room Temperature

    Gas, Non-metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    14.01

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    20.28

    Chemical Properties of Hydrogen

    Hydrogen is the lightest of the elements and the lightest of the gasses. Almost all the hydrogen on earth is in the form of compounds, mostly water. Elemental hydrogen is one of the major components of stars. Hydrogen is a diatomic gas as an element.

    Radium

    Symbol

    Ra

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    88

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    226.0254

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +2

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.1

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    973

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    1413

    Chemical Properties of Radium

    Radium was the first element found to be radioactive. Radium is a Group 2 element, but because of its radioactivity, it is not usually found in basic chemistry labs.

    Barium

    Symbol

    Ba

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    56

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    137.327

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +2

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    0.89

    State at Room Temperature

    solid

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1002

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    1910

    Chemical Properties of Barium

    A Group 2 element, barium is about as soft as lead. Compounds of barium make excellent absorbers of x-ray radiation, so are used to outline organs in medical radiology. White barium compounds are used in paints.

    Strontium

    Symbol

    Sr

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    38

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    87.62

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +2

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    0.95

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1042

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    1657

    Chemical Properties of Strontium

    The flame test for strontium is a brilliant dark red. This color is spectacularly shown in fireworks displays with strontium salts. Elemental strontium is a hard silvery metal of Group 2, very similar to calcium.

    Calcium

    Symbol

    Ca

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    20

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    40.078

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +2

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1112

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    1757

    Chemical Properties of Calcium

    Calcium is a Group 2 element that is very abundant in the earths crust and in compounds, but never seen in nature as the free metal element. It is an essential element for living things, especially in muscles, leaves, bones, teeth, and shells. Calcium is found in limestone. The element form of calcium, a soft metal, was not known until the early in the nineteenth century by electrolysis.

    Magnesium

    Symbol

    Mg

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    12

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    24.305

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +2

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.31

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    922

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    1363

    Chemical Properties of Magnesium

    Magnesium is very common in the earths crust, but only in compounds. The metal is a light, strong, metal element that will burn in air with a bright blue-white flame. It is used in places where tough metal alloys are needed to be light weight, such as automobile wheels (mag wheels) and airplane and helicopter bodies.

    Beryllium

    Symbol

    Be

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    4

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    9.01218

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +2

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.57

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1551

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    3243

    Chemical Properties of Beryllium

    The least dense of the Group 2 elements, beryllium is a very hard, tough metal. Ores of beryllium are not very plentiful. Its soluble compounds taste sweet.

    Yttrium

    Symbol

    Y

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    39

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    88.90585

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.22

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1795

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    3611

    Scandium

    Symbol

    Sc

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    21

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    44.95591

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.36

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1814

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    3104

    Actinium

    Symbol

    Ac

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    89

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    227.0278

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.3

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1320

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    3470

    Lanthanum

    Symbol

    La

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    57

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    138.9055

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.1

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1194

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    3730

    Rutherfordium

    Symbol

    Rf

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    104

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    261

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    State at Room Temperature

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    Hafnium

    Symbol

    Hf

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    72

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    178.49

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +4

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.5

    State at Room Temperature

    solid

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    2503

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    5470

    Zirconium

    Symbol

    Zr

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    40

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    91.224

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +4

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.33

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    2125

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    4650

    Titanium

    Symbol

    Ti

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    22

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    47.88

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +2,+3,+4

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.54

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1933

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    3560

    Chemical Properties of Titanium

    The ores of titanium are not very common, but the metal is a very light, strong metal. Titanium is much stronger per mass than iron. Airplanes and bicycles are some of the items that are made of titanium because of its lightness and great tensile strength. Titanium oxide makes a beautiful white pigment.

    Thorium

    Symbol

    Th

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    90

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    232.0381

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3, +4

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1842

    Cerium

    Symbol

    Ce

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    58

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    140.115

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3, +4

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.12

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1072

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    3699

    Dubnium

    Symbol

    Db

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    105

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    262

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    State at Room Temperature

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    Tantalum

    Symbol

    Ta

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    73

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    180.9479

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +5

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    2.36

    State at Room Temperature

    solid

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    3269

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    5698

    Niobium

    Symbol

    Nb

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    41

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    92.90638

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3,+5

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.6

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    2741

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    5015

    Vanadium

    Symbol

    V

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    23

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    50.9415

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +2,+3,+4.+5

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.63

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    2160

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    3650

    Protactinium

    Symbol

    Pa

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    91

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    231.03588

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +4, +5

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.38

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    2113

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    4300

    Praseodymium

    Symbol

    Pr

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    59

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    140.90765

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.13

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1204

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    3785

    Seaborgium

    Symbol

    Sg

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    106

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    263

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    State at Room Temperature

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    Tungsten

    Symbol

    W

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    74

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    183.84

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +6

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.9

    State at Room Temperature

    solid

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    3680

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    5930

    Chemical Properties of Tungsten

    Tungsten is a hard, brittle metal used commonly in light bulb filaments. Tungsten is also used in alloys with steel to make hard tough metals used in high speed drilling and cutting tools.

    Molybdenum

    Symbol

    Mo

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    42

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    95.94

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +6

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    2.16

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    2890

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    4885

    Chromium

    Symbol

    Cr

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    24

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    51.9961

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +2,+3,+6

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.66

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    2130

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    2945

    Chemical Properties of Chromium

    The word "chrome" is connotes bright and shiny. In fact, chromium is used as an electroplated cover on many automobiles. The compounds of chromium have many brilliant varied colors, and so are used as pigments.

    Uranium

    Symbol

    U

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    92

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    238.0289

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3, +4, +5, +6

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.36

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1405.5

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    4018

    Chemical Properties of Uranium

    Uranium has the highest atomic number of the naturally occurring elements. Some nuclear energy facilities use uranium as the fuel to make electricity. Some of the yellow or black compounds of uranium were used in ceramic glazes.

    Neodymium

    Symbol

    Nd

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    60

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    144.24

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.14

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1294

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    3341

    Bohrium

    Symbol

    Bh

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    107

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    262

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    State at Room Temperature

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    Rhenium

    Symbol

    Re

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    75

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    186.207

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +4,+6,+7

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    2.2

    State at Room Temperature

    solid

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    3453

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    5900

    Technetium

    Symbol

    Tc

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    43

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    97.9072

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +4,+6,+7

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.9

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    2445

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    5150

    Manganese

    Symbol

    Mn

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    25

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    54.93805

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +2,+3,+4,+7

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.55

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1517

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    2235

    Chemical Properties of Manganese

    A magnetic metal with many of the properties of iron, manganese is more brittle than iron. It is used mainly in steel alloys to harden them.

    Neptunium

    Symbol

    Np

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    93

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    237.048

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3, +4, +5, +6

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.28

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    913

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    4175

    Promethium

    Symbol

    Pm

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    61

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    144.9127

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Sanderson

    0.94

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1441

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    3000

    Hassium

    Symbol

    Hs

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    108

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    265

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    State at Room Temperature

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    Osmium

    Symbol

    Os

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    76

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    190.23

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3,+4

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    2.2

    State at Room Temperature

    solid

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    3327

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    5300

    Ruthenium

    Symbol

    Ru

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    44

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    101.07

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    2.2

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    2583

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    4173

    Iron

    Symbol

    Fe

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    26

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    55.847

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +2,+3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.83

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1808

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    3023

    Chemical Properties of Iron

    Iron is the metal on which our civilization is built. It is usually not used as the pure element, but as the major component of a large number of alloys called steel. Other metals can be added to iron to make alloys with much improved properties, such as stainless steel. Iron is magnetic and a decent conductor of electricity in its pure form.

    Plutonium

    Symbol

    Pu

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    94

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    244.0642

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3, +4, +5, +6

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.3

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    914

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    3505

    Samarium

    Symbol

    Sm

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    62

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    150.36

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +2, +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.17

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1350

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    2064

    Meitnerium

    Symbol

    Mt

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    109

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    266

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    State at Room Temperature

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    Iridium

    Symbol

    Ir

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    77

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    192.22

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3,+4

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    2.28

    State at Room Temperature

    solid

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    2683

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    4403

    Rhodium

    Symbol

    Rh

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    45

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    102.9055

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    2.28

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    2239

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    4000

    Cobalt

    Symbol

    Co

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    27

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    58.9332

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +2,+3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.88

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1768

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    3143

    Americium

    Symbol

    Am

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    95

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    243.0614

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3, +4, +5, +6

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.3

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1267

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    2880

    Europium

    Symbol

    Eu

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    63

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    151.965

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +2, +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.2

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1095

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    1870

    Theoretical Elements

    The organization of the Periodic Table of the Elements implies the existence of some elements that have never been observed. No element with an atomic number higher than 92 exists in nature, but some of them have been synthesized in laboratory settings. A few, such as elements 110 to 112, exist in theory but have never been synthesized, nor have they been named.

    Platinum

    Symbol

    Pt

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    78

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    195.08

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +2,+4

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    2.54

    State at Room Temperature

    solid

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    2045

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    4100

    Chemical Properties of Platinum

    The free element platinum is a metal almost as inactive as gold. For this reason and its silvery beauty, platinum has been considered a precious metal.

    Palladium

    Symbol

    Pd

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    46

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    106.42

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +2,+3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    2.2

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1825

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    3413

    Nickel

    Symbol

    Ni

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    28

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    58.6934

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +2,+3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.91

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1726

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    3005

    Chemical Properties of Nickel

    Nickel is used in many alloys, generally making the alloy stronger and less chemically active. It is a metal element in the iron and cobalt group. Nickel is used in some storage batteries.

    Curium

    Symbol

    Cm

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    96

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    247.0703

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.3

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    Gadolinium

    Symbol

    Gd

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    64

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    157.25

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Sanderson

    0.94

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1586

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    3539

    Gold

    Symbol

    Au

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    79

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    196.96654

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +1,+3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    2

    State at Room Temperature

    solid

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1337.58

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    3080

    Chemical Properties of Gold

    Gold is the least active of the metals. Gold is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity. It is used in electrical circuitry that is either exposed to weathering or must be reliable for many years. Gold is the most malleable material. The distinctive metallic yellow of gold is known and highly valued throughout the world.

    Silver

    Symbol

    Ag

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    47

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    107.8682

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +1

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.93

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1235.1

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    2485

    Chemical Properties of Silver

    Silver can be found in the native state and in compounds. Silver is one of the best conductors of heat and electricity and almost the most malleable and ductile metal, second only to gold. Silver is harder than gold, but it reacts with some acids.

    Copper

    Symbol

    Cu

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    29

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    63.546

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +1,+2

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.9

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1356.6

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    2840

    Chemical Properties of Copper

    The metal element is a characteristic golden-red. It is one of the best conductors of heat and electricity. The most important use we have for copper at this time is the conduction of electricity.

    Berkelium

    Symbol

    Bk

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    97

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    247.0703

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3, +4

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.3

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    Terbium

    Symbol

    Tb

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    65

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    158.92534

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.22

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1629

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    3296

    Mercury

    Symbol

    Hg

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    80

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    200.59

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +1,+2

    "0dea">Electronegativity , Pauling

    1.8

    State at Room Temperature

    liquid

    "0e11">Melting Point , degrees Kelvin

    234.28

    "0dd7">Boiling Point , degrees Kelvin

    629.73

    Chemical Properties of Mercury

    The metal element is a liquid between -39 oC and 356 oC. The most common use for elemental mercury is in a liquid thermometer.

    Cadmium

    Symbol

    Cd

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    48

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    112.411

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +2

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.69

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    594.1

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    1038

    Chemical Properties of Cadmium

    Cadmium is a soft bluish metal that is used in low-melting alloys, high friction-resistant alloys, and electroplating. Cadmium rods are used in control for atomic fission. Cadmium sulfide makes a yellow pigment.

    Zinc

    Symbol

    Zn

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    30

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    65.39

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +2

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.65

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    692.73

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    1180

    Chemical Properties of Zinc

    Elemental zinc is a bluish metal that is slightly brittle at room temperature. Zinc metal is used to alloy with other metals. Zinc oxide is used as an antiseptic and as a white pigment.

    Californium

    Symbol

    Cf

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    98

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    251.0796

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.3

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    Dysprosium

    Symbol

    Dy

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    66

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    162.50

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.23

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1685

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    2835

    Thallium

    Symbol

    Tl

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    81

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    204.3833

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +1,+3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    2.33

    State at Room Temperature

    solid

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    576.6

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    1730

    Indium

    Symbol

    In

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    49

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    114.818

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.78

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    429.32

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    2353

    Gallium

    Symbol

    Ga

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    31

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    69.723

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.81

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    302.93

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    2676

    Aluminum

    Symbol

    Al

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    13

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    26.981539

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.61

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    933.5

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    2740

    Chemical Properties of Aluminum

    A very rare metal before the electrolytic process of producing it was discovered in 1886, Aluminum is a common metal to us today. The melting point is 660 C, so it cant be melted on a common household stove unless it contains a lower boiling liquid, such as water. Aluminums silvery shine when new changes to a powdery gray in the air that gives it a protective coating against further oxidation.

    Boron

    Symbol

    B

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    5

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    10.811

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    2.04

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metalloid

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    2573

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    3931

    Chemical Properties of Boron

    Boron is familiar in its use as borax, a water softener, and in boric acid, a mild antiseptic. It is also used in ceramics. Boron is a non-metal element that is not found free in nature.

    Einsteinium

    Symbol

    Es

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    99

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    252.083

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.3

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    Holmium

    Symbol

    Ho

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    67

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    164.93032

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.24

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1747

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    2968

    Lead

    Symbol

    Pb

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    82

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    207.2

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +2,+4

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    2.02

    State at Room Temperature

    solid

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    600.65

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    2013

    Chemical Properties of Lead

    Lead is malleable and fairly soft. Lead salts are poisonous. Lead is used in automotive electric batteries, solder for electronic devices, and pigments.

    Tin

    Symbol

    Sn

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    50

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    118.71

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +2,+4

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.96

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    505.1

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    2543

    Chemical Properties of Tin

    Tin is a metal element that tends to form crystals in the solid metal. It does not react with mild acids or the normal constituents of the air, making it useful as a coating to cheaper metals.

    Germanium

    Symbol

    Ge

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    32

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    72.61

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +2,+4

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    2.01

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metalloid

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1210.6

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    3103

    Chemical Properties of Germanium

    The melting point of 32 C permits Germanium to be melted in a persons hand. Germanium is used in the manufacture of semiconductors.

    Silicon

    Symbol

    Si

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    14

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    28.0855

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +2,+4,-4

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.9

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metalloid

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1683

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    2628

    Chemical Properties of Silicon

    Elemental silicon is not malleable. Hit a lump of silicon and it shatters, spraying needle-sharp shards. It is a semi-conductor of electricity, a property that makes it valuable in electronic components. Sand and other minerals are made of silicon dioxide. Silicones, organic compounds with silicon in place of carbon, have been used to for an incredible number of biological tasks.

    Carbon

    Symbol

    C

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    6

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    12.011

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +2, +4, -4

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    2.55

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Nonmetal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    3820

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    5100

    Chemical Properties of Carbon

    There are three common forms of elemental carbon; carbon black (soot or lamp black), graphite, and diamond. Carbon is not known to form ionic bonds, but only covalent bonds, of which it can make four single covalent bonds per atom. The four covalent bond arrangement gives carbon the geometrical capability to make an incredible number of compounds, called organic compounds.

    Fermium

    Symbol

    Fm

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    100

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    257.0951

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.3

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    Erbium

    Symbol

    Er

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    68

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    167.26

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.25

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1802

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    3136

    Bismuth

    Symbol

    Bi

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    83

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    208.98037

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3,+5

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    2

    State at Room Temperature

    solid

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    544.5

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    1883

    Chemical Properties of Bismuth

    The pure metal has a slightly pink color to it on top of the usual metallic silvery shine. For a metal, bismuth has a low melting point and a low electrical conductivity. It is used in alloys for sprinkler systems and for metal casting.

    Antimony

    Symbol

    Sb

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    51

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    121.757

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3,+5,-3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    2.05

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metalloid

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    903.9

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    1908

    Chemical Properties of Antimony

    On the Periodic Chart antimony appears on the line between metals and non-metals. Antimony is more brittle and less conductive of heat and electricity than most metals. Antimony is used in alloys, for instance mixing with lead to harden it. Antimony is also used in flame proofing compounds and in paints and pottery.

    Arsenic

    Symbol

    As

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    33

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    74.92159

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3,+5,-3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    2.18

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metalloid

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1090

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    889 (sub)

    Chemical Properties of Arsenic

    It has been known for centuries that arsenic compounds are poisonous. Arsenic is a semi-metal (on the boundary between metals and non-metals) that is used in hardening metals, poisons such as insecticides, and coloring materials in paints.

    Phosphorus

    Symbol

    P

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    15

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    30.973762

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3, +5, -3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    2.19

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Nonmetal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    317.3

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    553

    Chemical Properties of Phosphorus

    Along with nitrogen and potassium, phosphorus is also a limiting factor in the growth of living things.

    Nitrogen

    Symbol

    N

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    7

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    14.00674

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, -1, -2, -3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    3.04

    State at Room Temperature

    Gas, Nonmetal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    63.29

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    77.4

    Chemical Properties of Nitrogen

    About eightypercent of the atmosphere is elemental nitrogen. Nitrogen gas is a diatomic molecule. Since many organic compounds requirenitrogen, its availability is a limiting factor on biological growth. Thus,nitrogen compounds are included in many fertilizers.

    Mendelevium

    Symbol

    Md

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    101

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    258.1

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.3

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    Thulium

    Symbol

    Tm

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    69

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    168.93421

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Sanderson

    0.96

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1818

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    2220

    Polonium

    Symbol

    Po

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    84

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    208.9824

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +2,+4

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    2.2

    State at Room Temperature

    solid

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    527

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    1235

    Tellurium

    Symbol

    Te

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    52

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    127.6

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +4,+6,-2

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    2.1

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metalloid

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    722.7

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    1263

    Selenium

    Symbol

    Se

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    34

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    78.96

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +4,+6,-2

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    2.55

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Nonmetal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    490

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    958.1

    Sulfur

    Symbol

    S

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    16

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    32.068

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +4,+6,-2

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    2.58

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Nonmetal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    386

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    717.824

    Chemical Properties of Sulfur

    Elemental sulfur is a non-metal pale yellow brittle solid. Sulfur burns in air to form sulfur dioxide. This is the first step in the manufacture of sulfuric acid, by far the most used compound of sulfur. Sulfur is one of the main ingredients in the vulcanization of rubber.

    Oxygen

    Symbol

    O

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    8

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    15.9994

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    -2

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    3.44

    State at Room Temperature

    Gas, Nonmetal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    54.8

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    90.19

    Chemical Properties of Oxygen

    Just as nitrogen, elemental oxygen is abundantly available in the atmosphere. Every element except for the inert gases can chemically combine with oxygen, the metals form ionic bonds and the non- metals form covalent bonds. Oxygen is necessary for the respiration of all animals and almost all combustion.

    Nobelium

    Symbol

    No

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    102

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    259.1009

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +2, +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    Ytterbium

    Symbol

    Yb

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    70

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    173.04

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +2, +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.27

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1097

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    1466

    Astatine

    Symbol

    At

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    85

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    209.9871

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Rochow

    1.96

    State at Room Temperature

    solid

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    575

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    610

    Chemical Properties of Astatine

    Astatine is the only halogen (Group 7 or 17) element that is naturally radioactive.

    Iodine

    Symbol

    I

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    53

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    126.90447

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +1,+5,+7,-1

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    2.66

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Nonmetal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    386.7

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    457.5

    Chemical Properties of Iodine

    The element looks like a dark gray brittle solid at room temperature, but it easily sublimes into a purple gas. Iodine in alcohol solution is a commonly used antiseptic. Iodine is a member of the halogen group. As a gas it is a diatomic molecule.

    Bromine

    Symbol

    Br

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    35

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    79.904

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +1,+5,-1

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    2.96

    State at Room Temperature

    Liquid, Nonmetal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    265.9

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    331.9

    Chemical Properties of Bromine

    Bromine is a halogen (Group 17 element). It is one of the few elements liquid at room temperature. Bromine has a melting point of -7 C and a boiling point of 59 C. A reddish-brown very irritating poisonous vapor comes from the liquid. The organic compounds of bromine are very important.

    Chlorine

    Symbol

    Cl

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    17

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    35.4527

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +1,+5,+7,-1

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    3.16

    State at Room Temperature

    Gas, Nonmetal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    172.2

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    238.6

    Chemical Properties of Chlorine

    Chlorine is found most commonly as the chloride ion, which is part of Sodium chloride or "table salt". The chloride ion dissolves easily in water and is one of the common electrolytes in living things. Elemental chlorine is used in water for control of bacterial and fungal growth. Chlorine in the form of hypochlorites are used in clothing bleaches. Chlorine is a non-metal element of the halogen group.

    Fluorine

    Symbol

    F

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    9

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    18.998403

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    -1

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    3.98

    State at Room Temperature

    Gas, Nonmetal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    53.53

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    85.01

    Chemical Properties of Fluorine

    Fluorine is the least dense of the halogen group, Group 17. Elemental fluorine is a pale greenish-yellow gas that is extremely poisonous and extremely active chemically. Sodium fluoride in very small quantities is used in drinking water to prevent dental decay. Many organic compounds containing fluorine are common useful materials such as Freon and Teflon.

    Lawrencium

    Symbol

    Lr

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    103

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    262.11

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    Lutetium

    Symbol

    Lu

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    71

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    174.967

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    +3

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    1.3

    State at Room Temperature

    Solid, Metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    1936

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    3668

    Radon

    Symbol

    Rn

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    86

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    222.0176

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    0

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    0.7

    State at Room Temperature

    gas

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    202

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    211.4

    Chemical Properties of Radon

    The heaviest of the inert gases, radon is a radioactive gas. Unlike the lighter noble gases, radon is not used in fluorescent lights.

    Xenon

    Symbol

    Xe

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    54

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    131.29

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    0

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    2.6

    State at Room Temperature

    Gas, Nonmetal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    161.3

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    166.1

    Chemical Properties of Xenon

    The heaviest and the rarest of the naturally occurring inert gases in air, xenon produces a beautiful blue glow in fluorescent tubes. As with the other inert gases, it makes no natural compounds.

    Krypton

    Symbol

    Kr

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    36

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    83.8

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    0

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    State at Room Temperature

    Gas, Nonmetal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    116.6

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    120.85

    Chemical Properties of Krypton

    Krypton is an inert gas. As the other noble gases, it produces a bright line spectrum in fluorescent tubes. Kryptons light output is a brilliant yellow-green.

    Argon

    Symbol

    Ar

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    18

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    39.948

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    0

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    State at Room Temperature

    Gas, Nonmetal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    83.8

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    87.3

    Chemical Properties of Argon

    Argon is one of the inert gasses of Group 18, the noble gases. It does not combine with other elements. Argon is collected from the air by fractional distillation. It is used in the red colored electric fluorescent tubes popularly called neon lights.

    Neon

    Symbol

    Ne

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    10

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    20.1797

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    0

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    State at Room Temperature

    Gas, Nonmetal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    24,48

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    27.1

    Chemical Properties of Neon

    The gas that lends its name to the group of fluorescent lights made from inert gases itself only produces a red-orange color in the gas tubes. As an inert element, it does not combine with other elements to make compounds.

    Helium

    Symbol

    He

    "0dd4">Atomic Number

    2

    "0dd5">Atomic Weight

    4.002602

    "0e3d">Oxidation States

    0

    "0dea">Electronegativity, Pauling

    State at Room Temperature

    Gas, Non-metal

    "0e11">Melting Point, degrees Kelvin

    0.95

    "0dd7">Boiling Point, degrees Kelvin

    4.216

    Chemical Properties of Helium

    Helium is the lightest of the noble gasses, Group 18. It is used to inflate lighter-than-air balloons and airships and for artificial atmosphere for deep diving.

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    An amount of substance that has "0150">Avogadro's number (6.0220 X 1023) of atoms or molecules. A mole of chemical substance is therefore, by definition, the number in grams corresponding to the atomic or molecular mass (in atomic mass units). For example, since carbon-12 has atomic mass of 12, a mole of carbon is 12 grams.

    X(@( `0X@        Physics Terms and Definitions Part 2

    "0157">Back to Physics Terms and Definitions A-L

    "0e3e">Mass

    "0e3f">Mass Number

    "0e40">Moment of Inertia

    "0e41">Momentum

    "0e42">Muon

    "0e43">Neutrino

    "0e44">Neutron

    "0e45">Neutron Number

    "0e46">Node

    "0e47">Normal Force

    "0e48">Paramagnetic Substance

    "0e49">Period of a Wave

    "0e4a">Periodic Wave

    "0e4b">Phase

    "0e4c">Photon

    "0e4d">Pion

    "0e4e">Planck's Constant

    "0e4f">Potential Energy

    "0e50">Primary Colors of Light

    "0e51">Proton

    "0e52">Pulse

    "0e53">Quantum

    "0e54">Quarks

    "0e55">Radiation

    "0e56">Radioactive

    "0e57">Red Shift

    "0e58">Refraction

    "0e59">Rest Mass

    "0e5a">Scientific Law

    "0e5b">Simple Machines

    "0e5c">Solar Cell

    "0e5d">Specific Gravity

    "0e5e">Specific Heat

    "0e5f">Speed of Light

    "0e60">Standing Wave

    "0e61">Strain

    "0e62">Stress

    "0e63">Strong Interaction

    "0e64">Sublimation

    "0e65">Terminal Velocity

    "0e66">Tesla

    "0e67">Thermodynamics

    "0e68">Transverse Wave

    "0e69">Trough

    "0e6a">Ultrasonic Range

    "0e6b">Vaporization

    "0e6c">Velocity

    "0e6d">Weight

    "0e6e">Work

    "0157">Back to Physics Terms and Definitions A-L

    Absolute Temperature Scale

    The absolute temperature scale is the Kelvin scale, where "08c9">absolute zero equals -273.15 C or O K

    Absolute Zero

    Hypothetical point at which a substance would have no molecular motion and no heat, equals -273.15 C, -459 F, 0 K.

    Acceleration

    How an object changes its "0e6c">velocity with time.

    Alpha Particle

    Helium nucleus ejected from the nucleus of a radioactive nuclide during a radioactive reaction.

    NOTE: In this reaction, the atomic # decreases by 2 and the atomic mass by 4.

    Alternating Current (AC)

    A current whose direction is constantly reversing.

    Antinode

    Point of maximum disturbance in a standing wave.

    Atom

    Atoms are the tiny building blocks of matter which are made up of a nucleus (center core which contains protons and neutrons) surrounded by electrons that orbit around the nucleus like the planets in our solar system orbit the sun. They are the smallest particle of an element that retains the unique characteristics of that element.

    NOTE: atoms are so small that approximately 66,000,000 of them can fit on the point of a pin.

    Atomic Mass Unit

    Unit of mass exactly one twelfth the mass of the neutral isotope carbon (most abundant isotope).

    Atomic Mass

    Mass of a given atom, usually expressed in atomic mass units (AMU), it is the atomic weight multiplied by the atomic mass unit.

    Atomic Number

    Number representing the positive charge (or number of protons) in the nucleus of the atom of an element. This number is unique for all elements.

    Atomic Weight

    A number that compares the weight of one atom of an element to the weight of one atom of carbon.

    Beta Particle

    An electron emitted from the nucleus of a radioactive atom during radioactive decay .

    NOTE: this process causes the atomic number to increase by one.

    Black Body

    A body that can absorb and emit all electromagnetic wavelengths.

    Boson

    A subatomic particle that creates a force that acts on matter. Observed bosons include photons, pions, and gluons. Bosons that have not been observed but are predicted include gravitation and the Higgs particle.

    British Thermal Unit (BTU)

    Amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of one pound of water 1 Fahrenheit

    Buoyancy

    The upward push of a fluid on an object immersed in it is the buoyant force of a fluid.

    Calorie

    The amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1 Celsius.

    Centripetal Force

    The inward force that must be applied to keep a body moving in a circle.

    Chain Reaction

    The self-sustaining reaction produced during nuclear fission where at least one neutron from each fission produces another fission.

    Complementary Colors

    The two colors of light, that when combined are white.

    Concurrent Forces

    The two or more forces acting simultaneously on the same point on an object.

    Condensation

    The changing of a vapor to a liquid.

    Conduction

    The means by which heat is carried by way of collisions between rapidly moving molecules at the hot end of a body of matter and slower molecules at the cold end of that body of matter.

    Convection

    The transfer of thermal energy from one place to another as by the upward movement of a warm, light air current.

    Crest

    The region of upward displacement in a transverse wave.

    Damping

    The reduction in the amplitude of a wave due to dissipation of wave energy.

    Diamagnetic Substance

    A substance that is weakly repelled by a magnet.

    Diffraction

    The bending of a light wave around obstacles.

    Direct Current (DC)

    A current whose direction is one way, never reversing.

    Dynamo

    An electric generator that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

    Electric Field

    An electric field exists wherever an electric force acts on an electric charge.

    Electrolyte

    A liquid that conducts electricity by the motions of ions.

    Electromotive Force (EMF)

    A circuit in which each resistor (or circuit element) is connected directly across the power source (or battery).

    Electron

    Any of the negatively charged particles that form a part of all atoms. The number of electrons circulating around a nucleus is equal to the number of positive charges on the nucleus.

    Endothermic

    A process that absorbs energy as in melting and boiling.

    Energy

    The ability to do work.

    Exothermic

    A process that releases energy, for example freezing and combustion.

    Fermions

    All particles that make up matter are called fermions.

    Fission

    The breakdown of heavier to lighter nuclei with energy release (EXAMPLE: a nuclear power plant).

    Focal Length

    The distance from the principal focus to the lens or mirror.

    Force

    The vector quantity that is a push or pull exerted upon a body.

    Friction

    The force that always opposes motion between two surfaces in contact.

    Fusion

    The joining of lighter nuclei to form heavier nuclei that results in tremendous energy (EXAMPLE: the Sun's energy).

    Gamma Radiation

    The electromagnetic radiation ejected from the nucleus during radioactive decay.

    Gluons

    The eight different bosons that produce a force between quarks known as color force.

    Half-life

    The length of time it takes for half of a given mass of radioactive atoms to decay.

    Heat of Fusion

    The amount of energy required to melt a gram of substance at its melting/ freezing temperature.

    Heat of Vaporization

    The amount of energy required to vaporize one gram of a substance at its boiling temperature.

    Hertz

    The frequency of sound waves (1 hertz = 1 cycle per second).

    Higgs Particle

    It is believed that the Higgs particle confers mass to all other particles, it is the main undetected particle of the standard model of subatomic particles.

    Hypothesis

    A tentative explanation of observations that require further experimentation.

    Ideal Gas

    How a gas would act if its molecules had zero mass and its collisions were infinitely elastic.

    Impulse

    The change in momentum that is the product of the net force acting on the object and the length of time that force acts.

    Inertia

    The property by which an object resists being accelerated.

    Kinetic Energy

    The energy possessed by an object because of its motion.

    Laser

    The device that produces a narrow beam of light that is monochromatic and coherent. The name laser is derived form Light Amplification by<1>Stimulated Emission of Radiation = LASER.

    Left- Hand Rule (Magnetism)

    Grasp a wire with your left hand so that your thumb points in the direction of the electron flow, your fingers will then direct towards the flux lines.

    Longitudinal Wave

    A wave (like a sound wave) where the vibrations are parallel to the direction of the wave propagation.

    `0`HP(Conservation of Angular Momentum

    In a closed system, angular momentum is conserved.

    Conservation of Energy

    In a closed system, energy appears to be conserved in all but nuclear reactions and other extreme conditions.

    Conservation of Mass

    In a closed system, the total amount of mass appears to be conserved in all but nuclear reactions and other extreme conditions.

    Conservation of Mass-Energy

    The total amount of mass and energy must be conserved. The equation that links mass and energy was developed by Albert Einstein: E= mc2.

    Conservation of Momentum

    In a closed system, momentum stays the same.

    H(     Acceleration

    "0e6f"

    (v2-v1) = change in velocity <1>(t2-t1) = time required for change <1>a = acceleration Actual Mechanical Advantage (AMA)

    "0e70"

    AMA = actual mechanical advantage <1>Fr = resistance force <1>Fe = effort force

    Amount of Energy in a Quantum

    "0e71"

    f = frequency of the light <1>h = Planck's constant (6.63 10-34 joule-sec) <1>E = energy

    Average Speed with Constant Acceleration

    not starting from rest

    "0e72"

    Vi = initial velocity <1>Vav = average velocity <1>Vf = final velocity

    Average Speed with Constant Acceleration

    starting from rest

    "0e73"

    Vav = average velocity <1>Vf = final velocity

    Celsius to Fahrenheit

    "0e74"

    F = Degrees Fahrenheit<1>C = Degrees Celsius

    "0e75">Convert Now!

    Celsius to Kelvin

    "0e76"

    K = Degrees Kelvin<1>C = Degrees Celsius

    "0e75">Convert Now!

    Centripetal Acceleration

    "0e77"

    V = velocity of the object <1>r = radius of the circle <1>ac = centripetal Acceleration

    Change in Momentum (or impulse)

    "0e78"

    P = change in momentum <1>F = force <1>t = elapsed time

    Change on the Plate of a Parallel Plate Capacitor

    "0e79"

    C = capacitance (farads) <1>V = voltage (volts) <1>Q = charge on the plate (coulombs)

    Coefficient of Sliding Friction

    "0e7a"

    = coefficient of sliding friction <1>Ff = friction force of motion <1>N = normal force

    Density

    "0e7b"

    D = density <1>M = mass <1>V = volume

    Units of density are: gram/milliliter, gram/cubic centimeter and other mass/volume combinations. Distance at Constant Velocity

    "0e7c"

    s = distance <1>Vi = velocity <1>t = time

    Einstein's Equation

    "0e7d"

    m = mass <1>c = speed of light (3 108m/s) <1>E = energy

    Electric Field Intensity

    "0e7e"

    E = electric field intensity <1>F = force exerted <1>Q = charge

    Equation to Express Mass in Terms of Weight

    "0e7f"

    m = mass <1>w = weight <1>g = acceleration due to gravity

    Final Velocity with Uniform Acceleration

    "0e80"

    Vf = final velocity <1>Vi = initial velocity <1>a = acceleration <1>t = elapsed time

    Focal Length of Spherical Mirror

    "0e81"

    R = radius of the spherical shell <1>f = focal length

    Focal Length of Spherical Mirror (of radius R)

    "0e82"

    F = focal length <1>R = radius

    Force

    "0e83"

    F = force <1>m = mass <1>a = acceleration

    Force on a Current-Carrying Wire in a Magnetic Field

    "0e84"

    B = flux density <1>L = length of wire in field <1>I = current <1>F = force

    Force on a Moving Charge in a Magnetic Field

    "0e85"

    Q = charge in Coulombs <1>v = velocity in m/sec <1>B = flux density in Teslas <1>f = force in Newtons

    Frequency

    "0e86"

    F = frequency <1>w = number of waves <1>t = time

    Heat Exchange

    "0e87"

    Q = Heat gained or lost <1>m = mass <1>Cp = specific heat <1>t = temperature change

    Heat of Fusion

    The amount of energy necessary to melt a gram of substance at it's melting/ freezing temperature. <1>NOTE: For ice this is 80cal/g at 0C

    "0e88"

    H = heat for melting <1>m = mass <1>Lf = heat of fusion of the substance

    Heat of Vaporization

    The amount of energy necessary to vaporize a gram of substance at it's boiling temperature. <1>NOTE: For water at 100C this is 540 cal/g.

    "0e89"

    H = heat for vaporization<1>m = mass<1>Lv = heat of vaporization of the substance

    Ideal Mechanical Advantage (IMA)

    "0e8a"

    Fr = resistance force <1>Fe = effort force <1>Sr = resistance distance <1>Se = effort distance

    Illumination (in lumens)

    "0e8b"

    cd = intensity of source in candles <1>s = distance in meters <1>I = illumination in lumens

    Intensity Level of Sound

    "0e8c"

    = intensity level in decibels <1>I = intensity of sound <1>I0 = threshold of hearing

    Kinetic Energy

    "0e8d"

    m = mass <1>V = object's velocity <1>KE = Kinetic Energy

    Lens Equation

    "0e8e"

    p = object distance <1>f = focal length <1>q = image distance

    Liquid Pressure

    "0e8f"

    h = height of the liquid level <1>d = liquid density <1>g = gravitational constant <1>P = pressure

    Mechanical Advantage

    "0e90"

    A = advantage <1>l = load <1>e = effort

    Momentum

    "0e91"

    m = mass <1>v = velocity <1>P = momentum

    Newton's Law of Gravity

    "0e92"

    G = gravitation constant <1>m1,m2 = masses of objects <1>r = distance between masses <1>F = gravitational force

    Potential Difference Between Two Points

    "0e93"

    V = voltage in volts <1>Q = charge in coulombs <1>W = work in joules

    Potential Energy

    "0e94"

    w = weight <1>h = height of object <1>m = mass <1>g = constant gravitation <1>PE = petential energy

    Power

    The measure of how much work gets done per unit of time. Power is measured in watts.<1>NOTE: 1 watt = 1 joule/second

    "0e95"

    P = power (watts) <1>W = work (joules) <1>t = time in seconds <1>F = force in newtons <1>d = distance in meters

    Power in an AC-circuit (in Watts)

    "0e96"

    I = current (amperes) <1>R = resistance (ohms) <1>P = power (watts)

    Pressure

    Pressure is the force per unit area.<1>Units of pressure include: kilopascal, atmosphere, pounds/inch2, torr, mm of Hg

    "0e97"

    P = pressure <1>F = force <1>A = area

    Quantum Energy Relationship

    "0e98"

    E = energy <1>h = Planck's constant (6.63 10-34 joules-sec) <1>f = frequency

    Speed

    "0e99"

    S = speed <1>d = distance <1>t = time

    Telescopic Magnification

    "0e9a"

    m = magnification <1>fo = focal length of objective <1>fe = focal length of eyepiece

    Velocity Ratio

    "0e9b"

    V = velocity <1>de = distance moved by effort <1>dl = distance moved by load

    Wave Velocity

    "0e9c"

    v = wave velocity <1>f = frequency <1>w = wavelength

    Work

    "0e9d"

    W = work (joules) <1>F = force (Newtons) <1>d = distance (meters)

    Work Against Friction

    "0e9e"

    W = work against friction <1>Ff = friction force <1>d = distance the object moves

    Work Input

    "0e9f"

    Wi = work input <1>Fe = effort force <1>Se = effort distance

    Work Output

    "0ea0"

    Wo = work output <1>Fr = resistance force <1>Sr = distance object moves

    Prophase

    The first stage of mitosis, during which the chromatin is formed into chromosomes that split into separate formed chromatids. <1>Note: A chromatid is the single strand of double-stranded chromosome.

    "0ea1"

    Image Key <1>A = Nuclear Envelope<1>B = Centrioles<1>C = Chromosomes

    Metaphase

    The second stage of mitosis, where each chromosome lines up at the cells equator (the metaphase plate). Proper alignment of the chromosomes is aided by the mitotic spindle.

    "0ea2"

    Anaphase

    The third stage of mitosis, where the divided chromosomes move apart toward the opposite poles of the cell.

    "0ea3"

    Telophase

    The last stage of mitosis, in which the original cell becomes completely divided into two cells, each having a reorganized nucleus.

    "0ea4"

    Cell Mitosis

    "0ea5"

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"" ""!""!f {633333303033032!"3033"!"#03132"!"033"!" 313"!" 313"!" 3132!"03133"#03032"30303"3312103312133323033!21#3 02#"03031333"32#3303"!21"#33303 "13#331332!323"303132312#303133#33#33133231233233303"3132332#3303!332311#3302!3131"3313 213123113313231323313313123313#11 333#313 0#133123103#313 03#131310#303#31323130#303#31323130#3 023313323 021332313203 210313233120321 3131312032312313103"313231303 30#313231303#302!311303"32133121303123213313231301203"10323012 313#103313013 313130#03313231301"313131"31313023331323130303231313 0"333130302#313130#10331130313#3130#1303213313 3#30323330"33331"#330233331"3"!30323013323230323"13323303012 30#1332330303 30"#333"3130303"#3#3303!313303# 3#3303!33303#03#33032#3#3303 3 0#330323#3303 30330323#330330303233#3303303233#3303303233#3303303233#3303303233#3303033233#30333233#3033"33"3033#30323033#30323033#303323033#30332333#303323303#303323303#3033233 03#33032303 03#33032303 2#33032#03 "#33032"03#3303203#3303203#3303203#330203#33023#0323#0323#0323#03203#03203#03203#030203 0#"330"233 03#23303#233 03#2#302#233 0#3#303203 #3#303203 #3 303203#3 33203#3 33230#3"3"3230#323#323"323#3"3323#303323#330323#33 03230#33 0230#33 0230#33 0230#33 032 3#3303 33303 33303 333303330303033030303333333Pj{"#3"#3"#3"#3"#32"#32"#32"#32"#32"#3"3"3"3"32"32"32"#32"!"#32""#3"!"3"!"3"32"#3"!"!2!#3""3"!"3""#32!#32"32"!"3""!"#32"#32#""#32!"3"#2#32"#3232"32!"3 2"#2#"3#32"#3"23"#32"#3""3#2#32"#3 2#232"32"! #32!#0" #32"#32"2""""3#3"#3232!"31#3"#323""#31#3"#331!"!313"3 31"!"!"313" "303"!""!#3" " 22"!"3"232" "3"#2 !3!#32" "3!"3! !#32" "#3"3! !#32" " "#3"!32" "#32!32""#32""#32!#3" "3"#3" "32 3"32! "3"3" !"3"32 !#3"32 !#3"3!"!#3"#3!!#32""#3!!#32"!"#3!"#32"!"#3!2#3"!"#3"2"32"!"#32#2#32""#3#3#32"#3#3#32"#3#3#32"3#3#32"3#3#32"3#3#32"3#3#32"3#3#32"32"3#32"32#32"32"32"32"3"32"3"32"3"32"#3"32"#3"32"#3"32"#3"3"#3"3"3"3"3"3"3"3"3"3"3"Px"32"32"32"32"32"32"#3"#3"#3"#3"#3"#3"#3"#3"#3"#3"#3"#3"#3"#3"32"32"32"32"3"32"2"32#32"#3"3!32"3#2"323"32"3"3#2"#323"3#2"#32"!3"3!#3!32"32#!#31#32"3133132"3"3!#23232"3#2"#3!#2323"3"!3!33"3#2"#3!3!#33"3#2"313!#3!32"3"3232#2#32"3232"3132"#3!#3!#3!#3"#3 132#23"#323!313"#3!3"31#3"#3 "1#31#3!3"3"3"#3 2131#33#3"3#2"#3231#32#3"3#2"#32331"3#2"#3 2331#223"3#2"3 23#1#2232"3"3 23#1#2232"3 23#1#2232"3 23#1#2232"3 23#1#2232"3 23#1#2232"3 23#1#22#32"3 "2#1#23#32"3#2#1#2#32"#32"#3 #2#1#2#3"#2"#3 #2#1#2#3"#3"#3 #2#1#2#0"#2"#3 "2#1#2#3"#2"#323"#1#2"#3"#32"#3 #3#1#2#2#3"#32"1#2#3"#3"#321#2"3"3#2"#32!#"3"3"!#32"3"3"#32"3#2"32"#3"32"3#32"3#32"3#32"3#32"32"32"32"32"32"32"32"32"`Plc""""#3"#3"#3"32"#2"#2"#2"3"#2"2"3"3"3"#"2"3"2""2"2" "2"3" "2!"#""2!"3" 31"2" "#"2"#!"2"1"#2""3"#" "# "3""2"2" 32" "#2" "0"!"#""2" "#"2""3"2""2" "3" "2" "#3" "2""#2 "3""3"#"" "3" "#2" " "#3""3" "32"!23" "32""!"#3" "32"!21"#3""32"!"!"#3"#2"21"#2"#3"!"!"32"#2"21"#2"#""!"2"#"!21"2"3"21"3"2""!"#"2"!121"#"#2" !31#!13"#2"#2"331"2""#"!31"2""#"!313""#"!13"2""#"!"2""#2"!31"2""2"!"#"2"2"! 10"#"2"3"!"3"#"3"2!#"3"3"#!" 2"3"3"3!303"3"#2"2!" #"#2"#"2! " #"2"#"2!" #"2"#"2!"#"2"#"2!"#"2"#"2 "#"2"#"2""#"2"#"2"#"2"2"#"""RD<"""""""!""!"3""#2#2"32"#2""#232""#2#2"!31"3"31"""1"#23"!1"#23""32"#3""#3"#23""#32"#23""32"#23"#"3"32"#3"#"#32"12"3"#3"3"#0"3"3#1!0 1!3#2"!003110"1#13#1"!2#3"0"!0"! 30"!10"!0302"!"#!""!"!"## "!"!"#1!#3"!"!"1322"!"#2"!"0"2#"2 2"!"#2"!" 1"02 032"#2"!"1 0"!"#2"!"!!""!"#2"!"#2#"20"!"#2"2"!"!"02# "!"#3"!"12"!"3#2"!"2"32 2"!"32""!!"##"!"3"3#2"#2""#!" "!"3"3#2"#32"" 1# #"#"2""3"#3""!20"32"#23"32"" 130""#23"#3"" 12"!"!22""32"3"!"!"!""32!" 3!"3"#0""#3"!"!"!""32"!2"3"!1""3" "!!""!"!#3"!""!"!"32"3"!"""3!!"!""#!"!"!"3"!"#2#2"!"""#23"3"""!"!""#32"3#2"" !3!"!32"#23"3"!""!"#2#2"3#2"!"!0"!"#2#2"3#2"#3231"!""3""!3131"""!3"!"!""!!"!"!"!"!!""!"!"#2"#3"" "!""#2"3#2"!" !"3"#2"3"!"!!"""#2"3"#3232"!!"32"#2"3#2"#"#!""#32"#3"2" !""0"!1"! !3""0"!"!"!1!!""0" "!""!"2"!"!" ""!"!"!!"!""#"!"!!"1#!#""!"#!#!2"!#!""!"!#!"!""!"!"2!#""!"#!2"!2#!"!"!"!#"2"!"!"!"!"!"!"#"!#"!""#!"#"2#"!""#"2"!""!""3""!"3#2""!"3#2""!"3#2"#32"!"3#2""!"3""!""!""!"""""""!""!"!""!"""""#2"3"!""#3#3""!"#3""!32"#3"!"!"#23"!"!"#2"3"""!""!""32"!""3"!"!"3"!"!"3"#3"!"3""!"32"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!""!"""""""""""""""""32"""3"""3"#3""3"""3"""3""!""!""!"!"!!" "#" "!"""2"1"""#032"303"0"#2"#2"3#"""""""""""``(lc" " " """ " " "!" " " " " """" """" "2" ""#3" " "3#2" " "32"3" " "3#2" " "3#2"" "" " " " " "" " """ "" "" "" " " " " " " " " " "" """"" "" " " " "" "" """ "" "" "" "" "" " " " " " """""" "" "3"" "3#2"" "3"""3#2#3"""3#2"""3" "" "" " "" """" " "" """ "#3" "3#" "3"3""3" "3#""#3""""" " """"""""""3""3#2""3#2""3"3#2""3#2""3""George Washington

    Federalist Party 1789-1797

    Born:

    Feb. 22, 1732, at Wakefield, Westmoreland County, Virginia

    Married:

    Martha Dandridge Custis (1731-1802); no children

    Died:

    Dec. 14, 1799; buried at Mount Vernon, Fairfax County, Virginia

    Early Career:

    Head of the Virginia Militia; Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army; Chairman of Constitutional Convention (1787)

    John Adams

    Federalist Party 1797-1801

    Born:

    Oct. 30, 1735, in Quincy, Massachusetts

    Married:

    Abigail Smith (1744-1818); 3 sons, 2 daughters

    Died:

    July 4, 1826; buried in Quincy, Massachusetts

    Early Career:

    Lawyer; delegate to Continental Congress: signer of the Declaration of Independence; first Vice President

    Thomas Jefferson

    Democratic-Republican Party 1801-1809

    Born:

    Apr. 13, 1743, at Shadwell, Albemarle County, Virginia

    Married:

    Martha Wayles Skelton (1748-1782); 1 son, 5 daughters

    Died:

    July 4, 1826; buried at Monticello, Albemarle County, Virginia

    Early Career:

    Lawyer; member of the Continental Congress; author of the Declaration of Independence; Governor of Virginia; first Secretary of State

    James Madison

    Democratic-Republican Party 1809-1817

    Born:

    March 16, 1751; Port Conway, Virginia

    Married:

    Dolley Paine Todd (1768-1849); no children

    Died:

    June 28, 1836; buried at Montpelier, Orange County, Virginia

    Early Career:

    Member of the Virginia Constitutional Convention (1776); member of the Continental Congress; major contributor to the U.S. Constitution; writer of the Federalist Papers; S ecretary of State

    James Monroe

    Democratic-Republican Party 1817-1825

    Born:

    Apr. 28, 1758, in Westmoreland County, Virginia

    Married:

    Elizabeth Kortright (1768-1830); 2 daughters

    Died:

    July 4, 1831; buried in Richmond, Virginia

    Early Career:

    Soldier; Lawyer; U.S. Senator; Governor of Virginia; Secretary of State

    John Quincy Adams

    Democratic-Republican Party 1825-1829

    Born:

    July 11, 1767, in Quincy, Massachusetts

    Married:

    Louisa Catherine Johnson (1775-1852); 3 Sons, 1 daughter

    Died:

    Feb. 23, 1848; buried in Quincy, Massachusetts

    Early Career:

    Diplomat; U.S. Senator; Secretary of State

    Andrew Jackson

    Democratic Party 1829-1837

    Born:

    Mar. 15, 1767, in New Lancaster County, South Carolina

    Married:

    Rachel Donelson Robards (1767-1828); no children

    Died:

    June 8, 1845; buried in Nashville, Tennessee

    Early Career:

    Lawyer; U.S. Representative and Senator; Indian fighter; General in the U.S. Army

    Martin VanBuren

    Democratic Party 1837-1841

    Born:

    Dec. 5, 1782, at Kinderhook, New York

    Married:

    Hannah Hoes (1783-1819); 4 sons

    Died:

    July 24, 1862; buried at Kinderhook, New York

    Early Career:

    Governor of New York; Secretary of State; Vice President

    William Henry Harrison

    Whig Party 1841

    Born:

    Feb. 9, 1773, at Berkeley, Charles City County, Virginia

    Married:

    Anna Symmes (1775-1864); 6 sons, 4 daughters

    Died:

    Apr. 4, 1841; buried in North Bend, Ohio

    Early Career:

    First Governor of Indiana Territory; Superintendent of Indian Affairs; U.S. Representative and Senator

    John Tyler

    Whig Party 1841-1845

    Born:

    Mar. 29, 1790, in Greenway, Charles City County, Virginia

    Married:

    Letitia Christian (1790-1842); 3 sons, 5 daughters Julia Gardiner (1820-1889); 5 sons, 2 daughters

    Died:

    Jan. 18, 1862; buried in Richmond, Virginia

    Early Career:

    U.S. Representative and Senator; Vice President

    James Knox Polk

    Democratic Party 1845-1849

    Born:

    Nov. 2, 1795, in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina

    Married:

    Sarah Childress (1803-1891); no children

    Died:

    June 15, 1849; buried in Nashville, Tennessee

    Early Career:

    U.S. Representative; Speaker of the House; Governor of Tennessee

    Zachary Taylor

    Whig Party 1849-1850

    Born:

    Nov. 24, 1784, in Orange County, Virginia

    Married:

    Margaret Smith (1788-1852); 1 son, 5 daughters

    Died:

    July 9, 1850; buried in Louisville, Kentucky

    Early Career:

    General in the U.S. Army

    Millard Fillmore

    Whig Party 1850-1853

    Born:

    Jan. 7, 1800, in Cayuga County, New York

    Married:

    Abigail Powers (1798-1853); 1 son, 1 daughter Caroline Carmichael McIntosh (1813-1881); no children

    Died:

    Mar. 8, 1874; buried in Buffalo, N.Y.

    Early Career:

    Teacher; lawyer; U.S. Representative; Vice President

    Franklin Pierce

    Democratic Party 1853-1857

    Born:

    Nov. 23, 1804, in Hillsboro, New Hampshire

    Married:

    Jane Means Appleton (1806-1863); 3 sons

    Died:

    Oct. 8, 1869, in Concord, New Hampshire

    Early Career:

    U.S. Representative and Senator

    James Buchanan

    Democratic Party 1857-1861

    Born:

    Apr. 23, 1791, near Mercersburg, Pennsylvania

    Married:

    Never married

    Died:

    June 1, 1868, in Lancaster, Pennsylvania

    Early Career:

    U.S. Representative; Secretary of State

    Abraham Lincoln

    Republican Party 1861-1865

    Born:

    Feb. 12, 1809, in Larue, Kentucky

    Married:

    Mary Todd (1818-1882); 4 sons

    Died:

    Apr. 15, 1865 (assassinated); buried in Springfield, Illinois

    Early Career:

    Lawyer; U.S. Representative

    Andrew Johnson

    Democratic Party 1865-1869

    Born:

    Dec. 29, 1808, in Raleigh, North Carolina

    Married:

    Eliza McCardle (1810-1876); 3 sons, 2 daughters

    Died:

    July 31, 1875; buried in Greeneville, Tennessee

    Early Career:

    State Representative and Senator; U.S. Representative; Governor of Tennessee; U.S. Senator; Vice President

    Ulysses S. Grant

    Republican Party 1869-1877

    Born:

    Apr. 27, 1822, in Point Pleasant, Ohio

    Married:

    Julia Dent (1826-1902); 3 sons, 1 daughter

    Died:

    July 23, 1885; buried in New York City

    Early Career:

    Army officer; Commander of Union Forces during Civil War

    Rutherford B. Hayes

    Republican Party 1877-1881

    Born:

    Oct. 4, 1822, in Delaware, Ohio

    Married:

    Lucy Ware Webb (1831-1889); 7 sons, 1 daughter

    Died:

    Jan. 17, 1893; buried in Fremont, Ohio

    Early Career:

    Lawyer; General in Union Army; U.S. Representative; Governor of Ohio

    James A. Garfield

    Republican Party 1881

    Born:

    Nov. 19, 1831, in Orange, Cuyahoga County, Ohio

    Married:

    Lucretia Rudolph (1832-1918); 4 sons, 1 daughter

    Died:

    Sept. 19, 1881 (assassinated); buried in Cleveland, Ohio

    Early Career:

    Teacher; Ohio state Senator; General in Union Army; U.S. Representative

    Chester A. Arthur

    Republican Party 1881-1885

    Born:

    Oct. 5, 1829, in Fairfield, Vermont

    Married:

    Ellen Lewis Herndon (1837-1880); 2 sons, 1 daughter

    Died:

    Nov. 18, 1886; buried in Albany, New York

    Early Career:

    Lawyer; Vice President

    Grover Cleveland

    Democratic Party 1885-1889/ 1893-1897

    Born:

    Mar. 18, 1837, in Caldwell, New Jersey

    Married:

    Frances Folsom (1864-1947); 2 sons, 3 daughters

    Died:

    June 24, 1908; buried in Princeton, New Jersey

    Early Career:

    Lawyer; Mayor of Buffalo; Governor of New York

    Benjamin Harrison

    Republican Party 1889-1893

    Born:

    Aug. 20, 1833, in North Bend, Ohio

    Married:

    Caroline Lavinia Scott (1832-1892); 1 son, 1 daughter Mary Scott Lord Dimmick (1858-1948); 1 daughter

    Died:

    Mar. 13, 1901; buried in Indianapolis, Indiana

    Early Career:

    Lawyer; General in Union Army; U.S. Senator

    William McKinley

    Republican Party 1897-1901

    Born:

    Jan. 29, 1843, in Niles, Ohio

    Married:

    Ida Saxton (1847-1907); 2 daughters

    Died:

    Sept. 14, 1901 (assassinated); buried in Canton, Ohio

    Early Career:

    Lawyer; U.S. Representative; Governor of Ohio

    Theodore Roosevelt

    Republican Party 1901-1909

    Born:

    Oct. 27, 1858, in New York City

    Married:

    Alice Hathaway Lee (1861-1884); 1 daughter Edith Kermit Carow (1861-1948); 4 sons, 1 daughter

    Died:

    Jan. 6, 1919; buried in Oyster Bay, New York

    Early Career:

    Assistant Secretary of the Navy; Cavalry Leader in Spanish-American War; Governor of New York; Vice President

    William Howard Taft

    Republican Party 1909-1913

    Born:

    Sept. 15, 1857, in Cincinnati, Ohio

    Married:

    Helen Herron (1861-1943); 2 sons, 1 daughter

    Died:

    Mar. 8, 1930; buried in Arlington National Cemetery

    Early Career:

    Lawyer; Judge; Secretary of War

    Woodrow Wilson

    Democratic Party 1913-1921

    Born:

    Dec. 28, 1856, in Staunton, Virginia

    Married:

    Ellen Louise Axson (1860-1914); 3 daughters Edith Boiling Galt (1872-1961); no children

    Died:

    Feb. 3, 1924; buried in Washington, D.C.

    Early Career:

    Lawyer; college Professor; Governor of New Jersey

    Warren G. Harding

    Republican Party 1921-1923

    Born:

    Nov. 2, 1865, near Blooming Grove, Ohio

    Married:

    Florence Kling De Wolfe (1860-1924); no children

    Died:

    Aug. 2, 1923; buried in Marion, Ohio

    Early Career:

    Ohio state Senator; U.S. Senator

    Calvin Coolidge

    Republican Party 1923-1929

    Born:

    July 4, 1872, in Plymouth, Vermont

    Married:

    Grace Anna Goodhue (1879-1957); 2 sons

    Died:

    Jan. 5, 1933; buried in Plymouth, Vermont

    Early Career:

    Massachusetts state Senator, Lieutenant Governor, and Governor; Vice President

    Herbert Hoover

    Republican Party 1929-1933

    Born:

    Aug. 10, 1874, in West Branch, Iowa

    Married:

    Lou Henry (1875-1944); 2 sons

    Died:

    Oct. 20, 1964; buried West Branch, Iowa

    Early Career:

    Mining engineer; Secretary of Commerce

    Franklin Delano Roosevelt

    Democratic Party 1933-1945

    Born:

    Jan. 30, 1882, in Hyde Park, New York

    Married:

    Anna Eleanor Roosevelt (1884-1962); 4 sons, 1 daughter

    Died:

    Apr. 12, 1945; buried in Hyde Park, New York

    Early Career:

    Lawyer; New York state Senator; Assistant Secretary of the Navy; Governor of New York

    Harry S. Truman

    Democratic Party 1945-1953

    Born:

    May 8, 1884, in Lamar, Missouri

    Married:

    Elizabeth Virginia "Bess" Wallace (1885-1982); 1 daughter

    Died:

    Dec. 26, 1972; buried in Independence, Missouri

    Early Career:

    Judge; U.S. Senator; Vice President

    Dwight D. Eisenhower

    Republican Party 1953-1961

    Born:

    Oct. 14, 1890, in Denison, Texas

    Married:

    Mamie Geneva Doud (1896-1979); 1 son

    Died:

    Mar. 28, 1969; buried in Abilene, Kansas

    Early Career:

    Commander, Allied landing in North Africa, Supreme Allied Commander in Europe during World War II; President of Columbia University

    John Fitzgerald Kennedy

    Democratic Party 1961-1963

    Born:

    May 29, 1917, in Brookline, Massachusetts

    Married:

    Jacqueline Lee Bouvier (1929-1994); 1 son, 1 daughter

    Died:

    Nov. 22, 1963 (assassinated); buried in Arlington National Cemetery, Virginia

    Early Career:

    U.S. Naval Commander; U.S. Representative and Senator

    Lyndon Baines Johnson

    Democratic Party 1963-1969

    Born:

    Aug. 27, 1908, in Stonewall, Texas

    Married:

    Claudia "Lady Bird" Alta Taylor (b. 1912); 2 daughters

    Died:

    Jan. 22, 1973; buried in Stonewall, Texas

    Early Career:

    U.S. Representative and Senator; Vice President

    Richard Milhous Nixon

    Republican Party 1969-1974

    Born:

    January 9, 1913; Yorba Linda, California

    Married:

    Pat Thelma Catherine Ryan (b. 1912); 2 daughters

    Died:

    April 22, 1994; New York, New York

    Early Career:

    Office of Price Administration; U.S. House of Representatives; House Un-American Activities Committee; U.S. Senate; U.S. Vice President

    Gerald R. Ford

    Republican Party 1974-1977

    Born:

    July 14, 1913, in Omaha, Nebraska

    Married:

    Elizabeth Bloomer Warren (b. 1918); 3 sons, 1 daughter

    Died:

    n/a

    Early Career:

    Lawyer; U.S. Representative; Vice President

    Jimmy (James Earl) Carter

    Democratic Party 1977-1981

    Born:

    Oct. 1, 1924, in Plains, Georgia

    Married:

    Rosalynn Smith (b. 1927); 3 sons, 1 daughter

    Died:

    n/a

    Early Career:

    Peanut farmer; Georgia state Senator; Governor of Georgia

    Ronald Reagan

    Republican Party 1981-1989

    Born:

    Feb. 6, 1911, in Tampico, Illinois

    Married:

    Jane Wyman (b. 1914); 1 son, 1 daughter Nancy Davis (b. 1921); 1 son, 1 daughter

    Died:

    n/a

    Early Career:

    Film and television actor; Governor of California

    George Bush

    Republican Party 1989-1993

    Born:

    June 12, 1924, in Milton, Massachusetts

    Married:

    Barbara Pierce (b. 1925); 4 sons, 2 daughters

    Died:

    n/a

    Early Career:

    U.S. Navy pilot; businessman; U.S. Representative; U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations; Vice President

    Bill(William Jefferson)Clinton

    Democratic Party 1993-2000

    Born:

    Aug. 19, 1946, in Hope, Arkansas

    Married:

    Hillary Rodham (b. 1947); 1 daughter

    Died:

    n/a

    Early Career:

    Arkansas state Attorney General; Governor of Arkansas

    George W. Bush

    Republican Party 2000-

    Born:

    July 6, 1946, in New Haven, Connecticut

    Married:

    Laura Welch (b. 1946); 2 daughters

    Died:

    n/a

    Early Career:

    Governor of Texas

    Feature

    A feature is a useful characteristic of a program. For instance, the ability to show text in different fonts is a feature of a word processor. Being able to search a database is a feature of a database management utility.

    Sometimes, when programmers can't fix a "01c9">bug, they call it a feature. Programmer humor.

    Flow

    The steps a program uses to perform its function.

    Format

    Dividing a new disk into tracts and sectors so files can be stored and retrieved.

    Fragmentation

    Breaking up files into separated clusters.

    See also: "01df">Defragging

    Gate

    An arrangement of transistors in a "098b">microcircuit design that allows the value of a bit to be changed.

    Gateway

    Software and hardware that enable two different "09a3">networks to connect with each other.

    GIF

    A "01d7">compressed, "01c4">bitmapped graphics format; one of the standard formats on the "0982">Internet.

    High-level Language

    Programming languages that use recognizable words. "Goto", "If" and "then", just to name a very few.

    Http

    The part of a URL that shows the locations as using HTML.

    Hub

    A device that connects computers on a "0989">network on the "0982">Internet.

    HyperText Markup Language (HTML)

    The coding that controls how a web page will look in your browser.

    Interface

    This is how you enter information into the computer and get information out. Typing, for example, is a text-based interface. Using a joystick is another type of interface.

    Internet

    A network connected to more than 100 million computers worldwide, not controlled by any one country or company.

    Interpreter

    Software tool that converts code into instructions the computer can read. It is similar to a "01d5">compiler, except a compiler makes the conversion before the program is ever used, and an interpreter converts source code to machine code while the program is running.

    IP Address

    Identifies a single computer or device on the internet by using an address written a four numbers separated by a period. Each number can be anywhere from 0 to 255.

    IP/ Internet Provider

    A company with the computers and other equipment that can connect you and your computer to the Internet. (Also: ISP)

    Land

    Any smooth area on a DVD (or other optical storage system) that reflects light directly back to a light-sensing device.

    Laser

    A device that emits a narrow, tight beam of light. Laser is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.

    Link

    Any text or graphic that, when you click on it with your mouse, takes you to another Internet page.

    Local Area Network (LAN)

    A network that is usually self-contained in a single office or building. It may or may not be connected to the "0982">Internet.

    Megahertz (MHz)

    1 MHz means that something vibrates, or oscillates, one million times a second. Usually refers to the speed of your computer's internal "01d2">clock.

    Microchip

    Microscopic electrical "01d0">circuits etched onto a sheet of silicon dioxide by using light, light-sensitive films and acid baths.

    Microprocessor, Processor

    The "098b">microchip that takes data in the form of binary bit and manipulates it. Your computer's "brain".

    Module

    A part of a program that does something very specific. It's a self-contained part, which means you could run it by itself, but it is meant to work with the program.

    Motion Pictures Expert Group (MPEG)

    A method of decompressing (expanding) video and sound.

    MPC

    A way of designating a personal computer as meeting or exceeding the minimum standards set by the MPC standards group. MPC stands for multimedia personal computer, and most computers you buy today exceed the current standards (known as MPC3).

    Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI)

    This is a protocol (a set of rules, formats and instructions) for synthesizing music.

    Operating System

    Software that connects the "01bc">application software with your computer's hardware.

    Optical Storage

    Any drive that uses a "0987">laser to store and read data.

    Pipelining

    A way of designing computers so all the parts of a "01d0">circuit are working all the time, so no part of the circuit is just waiting around for another part to finish.

    Pit

    A pit disperses light from a "0987">laser, causing the light to not be read by the "0992">optical drive. Used in combination with "0986">land to read data.

    Platter

    The hard, metal disk in a hard drive to which data is stored.

    Power On Self-Test (POST)

    A test that determines that all the hardware is working properly when you "001e">turn on your computer.

    Random Access Memory (RAM)

    Memory in your computer (chips or disks) that can be both read by the computer and written to.

    Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC)

    A processor style that uses only small, fast instructions.

    Read/Write Head

    The part of a drive that actually writes and reads the information in a drive.

    Rewritable

    An "0992">optical drive or disk which can be changed or erased.

    Read-Only Memory (ROM)

    Memory chips or disks that can be read by your computer but not written to or changed.

    Search Engine

    A program (usually provided by sites like Yahoo!, Excite, Ask.com, etc.) that looks on the "0982">Internet for keywords and returns the "hits" (instances where the keywords are found) in a list where you can click on a "0988">link and visit that site.

    Server

    A computer that provides data to client computers on a network ("0989">local or "09a3">wide area).

    System Files

    These small files are initialized by the "01c6">boot-up process and help to load the "0991">operating system onto your computer. Some common system files are: IO.SYS, MSDOS.SYS, COMMAND.COM, CONFIG.SYS, AUTOEXEC.BAT, USER.DAT AND SYSTEM.DAT.

    Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

    The standard formats and rules which allow connection and the exchange of data over the "0982">Internet.

    Universal Resource Locator (URL)

    This is a way of saying Internet address.

    Virtual Reality

    A simulated environment that can be experienced visually and may include other sensory experiences.

    Wave Table Synthesis

    Generating sounds from digital samples of musical instruments. Similar to FM synthesis (which uses mathematical descriptions of the sounds) but better.

    Wide Area Network (WAN)

    One network that extends beyond a single office or building. National and International corporations may use these to connect employees and offices all over the country or the world.

    World Wide Web (WWW)

    A group, loosely organized, of "0982">Internet servers that support the HTML format.

    Word Processors

    The office computer quickly went from being simply a number cruncher to a word processor capable of creating clean, professional-looking documents whose appearance can be easily changed without having to redo the entire document. In addition, documents created using a word processor can be used with "09ac">database programs to create multiple documents, each with the same basic format, but with different information (names and addresses, for example).

    The earliest word processors were capable of printing using the courier font-a rather plain, uninteresting font. But they have quickly evolved into programs that can use hundreds of different typefaces, have flexible margins, and can incorporate graphics into the documents.

    Click on the following links for additional information.

    "0ea6">HTML

    "0ea7">WYSIWYG

    "0ea8">Formatting Codes

    "0ea9">Spelling and Grammar Checkers

    Spreadsheets

    A spreadsheet program called VisiCalc is pretty much responsible for you having a computer today. The old computers first placed on the market were purchased by electronics hobbyists who were happy just to have a real computer. It wasn't until Dan Bricklin and Bob Frankston wrote VisiCalc that there was a real reason to buy a personal computer.

    VisiCalc was a spreadsheet program. Spreadsheets are used to keep track of numerical records, usually financial in nature, in a grid of vertical and horizontal lines where labels and numbers can be entered to keep track of these records. The huge advantage that electronic spreadsheets have over the old paper spreadsheets is their flexibility. If you have to change a number on a paper spreadsheet, you have to manually change that number, then recalculate the results, and make all the related changes needed. A computerized spreadsheet does this all automatically, saving a bunch of time.

    Cells <1>Each bit of information in a spreadsheet program is contained in its own box or "cells". This is done so your spreadsheet application can perform both simple and complex calculations on the information contained in specific cells.

    Low Level Languages

    There are many different human languages, and there are many different computer languages. The most basic computer language is machine language. These codes are written using only ones and zeros that "speak" directly with the PC's "098c">microprocessor.

    Mouses

    Mouses move the cursor by electronically keeping track of the motion of two rollers mounted at a 90 angle from each other. One roller corresponds to the up and down onscreen movement, and the other is for the side to side movement. A wheel, known as an encoder, is attached to each roller. The encoders each have conductive contacts on them, which cause electrical currents to flow through wires into the computer. By measuring how many contacts have been rotated, the computer can figure out how far, how fast and in what direction the cursor should move.

    Compilers

    It is very difficult to write programs using machine language, and luckily a programmer doesn't have to. Programs called compilers and interpreters take commands written in a higher language (C++, for example) and converts them into machine language.

    Assembly

    The next step up from machine language is a language called assembly, which uses simple command words to supply instructions for the processor to follow. If you or I were reading assembly code for the first time, it would be fairly unrecognizable as a true language. Assembly, although rather cryptic looking, is quite popular among programmers because it allows for the creation of fast, compact code.

    High Level Languages

    High-level languages, such as C, Java, Basic and others, more closely resemble English than low-level languages. These languages are quite powerful, and they also use compilers and interpreters to translate the code written into machine language.

    Database Managers

    Whether the data you are working with comes in the form of words, facts, or numbers, you need a way to sort, order, merge, separate and connect all this data. Otherwise youd just get a collection of data that is extremely difficult to use. There are many ways of managing data.

    "0eaa">Type and Format

    "0eab">Records and Fields

    "0eac">Tables

    "0ead">Query

    "0eae">Sorting

    "0eaf">Filters

    "0eb0">Logic Tests

    "0eb1">Reports

    "0eb2">Scripts

    "0eb3">Relational and Flat-File Databases

    "09a6">Spreadsheets

    Graphics Software

    When you look at a picture, you're not usually looking at it as a mathematical algorithm, but your computer does. Every color, shape, line and shadow are converted into numbers that describe what the picture looks like.

    Older computers were designed to handle only text, but computer manufacturers slowly developed ways (in reluctant response to consumer demands) to display and manipulate graphics. To get from the clunky way computers displayed graphics in the early eighties (four colors and poor resolution) to the slick and attractive graphics we have today, several things had to be developed:

    Monitors had to be developed that could handle more advanced graphics with very high resolution. These monitors had to also be affordable (a good monitor is still one of the most expensive parts of a computer, but they are a lot cheaper than they used to be).Graphics boards had to be created that could match the resolution of the new monitors.Memory and hard drives had to be less expensive. The memory needed to store the huge amounts of data needed to accurately display complex graphics used to be prohibitively expensive.Processing power had to grow and include functions specifically designed to handle graphics.

    Graphics are not limited to pictures. Graphics also includes the formatting and coloring of text and other information. When a negative number on a spreadsheet is shown in red, that's also a graphics function. When a map shows different area codes in different colors, that's also graphics. Graphics have become so integrated into today's programs that we hardly notice them.

    Multimedia

    Multimedia are advanced graphic and audio related programs. They are designed to quickly decompress and display large amounts of graphic, video and digital audio information. They are also usually equipped to work with 3-D graphics cards, further increasing your computers speed and accuracy when displaying very complex graphics (most commonly seen in games, where graphics and action have to change quickly and seamlessly).

    Communications

    Communications software has become probably the most vigorously pursued division of software. The demand for efficient internet access, email, broadcasting and electronic commerce is rising exponentially, and the ability of todays computers to keep up with this demand is crucial, and communications software (along with some types of hardwaremodems, for example) makes this possible. It used to be that only computer geeks communicated via computers, now almost all of us do.

    Utilities

    Once a type of program has been released, often a shortcoming is discovered that could be fixed or improved. For example, graphic files looked good on your monitor, but the time is took to download a picture from the Internet (especially in the good old, slow days) was incredible. One picture could literally take hours to be loaded onto your computer. Utilities programs are written to help other programs function more efficiently. To help reduce the downloading time for graphics, programs were written that could convert pictures into formats that could be "01d7">compressed (shrunk) before downloading, thereby reducing the time involved. Once the graphics were on your computer, your program would have a utility that would decompress (expand) the image so it could be displayed on your monitor.

    Other programs that help programs work better are virus detectors, disk and file management utilities, backups and many, many others. A lot of the best ones are barely noticeable when theyre running on your computer, but they greatly increase your computers efficiency and sometimes its security.

    Viruses

    There is a category of software that is designed to cause problems instead of fixing them. This kind of software is known as viruses. They can have results that are no more than an electronic joy-buzzer, to programs that destroy data, ruin operating systems and unformat hard drives. They work in much the same way as a virus does: they get into your computer and self-replicate, and then are passed to other computers when they come into contact with each other via modems and networks.

    Antivirus software is designed to recognize viruses before they get onto your hard drive, and to warn you that there is a problem. Then it can "fix" the virus, in this case fixing means totally wiping it out.

    64-The Pentiums' Lucky Number

    Pentium chips can handle data in 64 bit (see 16, 32, and More, bits, above) increments--double the speed of the 486 processors. The 486 had one cache that held 8 kilobytes of information at a time. Pentium II processors have several caches that can hold a total of 2 megabytes of data. They keep the CPU constantly busy with data and instructions, often doubling the speed a program will run vs. the 486 processor.

    Caches

    A cache is a temporary storage area were information that has been gathered by the computer (or entered by your or another input mechanism) can wait until it needs to be used (displayed on the monitor, printed, etc.). Often, as happens in video cache, the data contained in the cache can be analyzed and prepared for output and other functions. This allows processors, specifically Pentiums, to concentrate on the current task without being "distracted" by other data.

    Software can run even faster if it's written specifically to run on a Pentium processor.

    Pipelining

    A lot of the components of a Pentium processor are designed to keep the CPU's processing data continuously without any idle time. Ideally, every time the computer's clock ticks (which, when referring to a 500MHz clock, would be 500 million times a second) a function is executed or some data is processed. This is known as pipelining, and when it is working properly, no ALU ever waits for more data, not even for a millionth of a second.

    Different Kinds of Pentiums

    Many different Pentium processors are used into today's personal and business computers, but the main difference is in quantity and speed, not in the basic architecture of the chip. At the bargain basement end of the Pentium spectrum is the Celeron processor, which have limited, or no, cache. Xeon processors are at the other end, and use up to 2MB of cache to keep the processor busy. Xeons are often used for workstations used in developing 3D graphics, or as network servers where every bit of speed that can be squeezed out of the processors.

    New improvement in Pentium design work at increasing the chip's performance in areas such as 3D graphic, streaming data from the Internet, multimedia and voice recognition.

    How Hard Drives Work

    A sealed metal box protects the parts of the hard drive from dust and dirt--two things that can kill a hard drive. Because the space between the read/write heads and the platter is smaller than a human hair, something as small as a speck of dust can cause the heads to literally crash onto the platters, digging furrows into them as they spin at 10,000 rpm (revolutions per minute). How many platters and the composition of the magnetic material coating them (usually only 3 millionths of an inch thick) determine the capacity of the disk drive.

    "0eb4">Platters

    "0eb5">Logic Board and Controller

    "0eb6">Head Actuators

    "0eb7">FAT

    "0eb8">VFAT

    How Floppy Drives Work

    When you insert a floppy disk into the drive it pushes a system of levers that align the disk properly in the drive and opens the floppy's shutter to expose the cookie ( the actual mylar disk coated with a magnetic material).

    The two heads of the drive (one on each side of the disk) move until they barely touch the surface of the disk. The drive's circuit board gets instructions from the controller board and translates the commands into electrical signals that move the read/write heads along the disk.

    Write Protection

    If you want to write to the floppy, the write-protect window is checked to see if any light is shining through it. If there is, it won't write to the disk (this helps keep you from accidentally writing over--or deleting--crucial data). A motor then starts the disk spinning.

    The Stepper Motor

    A second motor--a stepper motor (which can turn a certain distance in either direction)--moving the heads over the disk. When the heads get to the proper position the heads either write information or reads it.

    Parallel Ports

    Since the beginning, a parallel port and a printer port were seen as basically the same thing. They weren't, but it was the primary connector for all types of printers. A serial port could be used to connect with a printer, but parallel ports are faster. In the time a serial port could send a command to print the letter Z to the printer a parallel port could send the word zoology.

    Serial Ports

    Serial ports are simple in design; they have a line to send data, another to receive data, and maybe a few more to control how the data is sent over the two main lines. They may be slower than parallel ports, but modems (that only send data serially, not simultaneously) and mouses or digital cameras, which don't have to send a lot of data.

    USBs

    The big problem with both serial and parallel ports is you can have only two of each. The chores of the serial port are likely to be integrated into the new Universal Serial Bus, which allows dozens of peripherals to be daisy chained to a single port.

    Other Ports

    There are also ports that we don't regularly think of as ports. The connections between the drives and the computer is a port, and many designs have been tried; the two dominant drive ports are the EIDE and SCSI. The least expensive and the most used is the EIDE (Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics). The SCSI (small computer system interface) is more expensive, but is faster and more versatile.

    Joystick

    A joystick is designed to tell the computer what position the joystick is in at all times. The joystick sends its location to the computer by letting it know what its X-Y axis coordinates are. X axis refers to side-to-side positioning and the Y axis refers to the up-and-down positioning. Position sensors attached to each axis of the joystick respond to the joystick's movement and send signals to the game adapter care the software uses to figure out the position of the game controller.

    The trigger and push-button switches send signals to the controller letting the computer know to fire the missiles or heavy-duty machine guns.

    Touchpads

    Touchpads have a rubber surface with two more layers that contain a row of electrodes, one going horizontally and the other vertically. The crossing electrodes don't touch, but a charge builds up and creates an electric field between the layers.

    Everything, including a finger, has an electric field. The grid of electrodes is affected by the field around your fingertip, causing a difference in the capacitance (intensity) of the fields at the intersections of the electrodes. By keeping track of the direction and speed of this "alien" field moving across the field created by the electrodes, the computer can display the corresponding movement to the cursor on the monitor.

    Pointing Sticks

    Pointing sticks have a portion of the stick showing above the keyboard. The rest of the stick is surrounded by four contacts with force sensing resistors sandwiched in between them. When you press the top of the stick in any direction, the pressure pushing against the contacts, a the force sensing resistors measure the direction of the pressure. This is translated into cursor movements.

    ADC

    An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) converts a analog signal to a digital signal that your computer can use. Several dozen times a second (at least) the current running through a wire in a piece of equipment is examined and the voltage is measured. If it's higher than a preset limit, it is on; lower than another preset limit and it's off.

    DAC

    A DAC, digital-to-analog converter, reverses the process. It takes the computer-friendly digital file and converts it to an analog signal that we can relate to; music coming from the speakers, for example.

    CDC

    A piece of equipment that works very nicely with DACs and ADCs is the coupled-charge device (CDC). It's a bunch of sensors made of a material that turns light into electricity. The stronger the light, the stronger the current. The current is sent through an ADC where the differing intensities are converted to numbers usable by the computer.

    Buses

    There isn't one part of your computer that you can point to and say "That's the bus!" The bus can be printed on circuit boards, adapters, expansion cards and chips. It is basically the highway along which the computer communicates with I/O devices that need to be in direct contact with the computer--a printer or scanner, for example.

    This "highway" has traffic signals called input/output controllers that keep all the data racing around from interfering, or crashing into, each other.

    To complicate matters, there is more than simply the bus located on the motherboard to contend with. There are buses for the processor, memory, SCSI connections, and the new bus to come along: a universal serial bus. The expansion cards mentioned earlier allow you to replace your original video, sound and other cards with update, faster ones--all with wider highways and faster speeds.

    "09c5">The King of Busses

    The King of Buses

    The PCI local bus, is capable of transferring data at the rate of 132MB per second and is quite impressive. But even the PCI highway is getting old and filled with potholes. Pentium processors running at well over 200MHz, faster DRAM and 3D graphics accelerators are leaving PCI in the dust. In 1997 Intel released the advanced graphics port, which is an improvement over the PCI bus. Expect many more improvements to occur as processors get even more powerful.

    Abstract Noun

    Words that name feelings, qualities and ideas. <1>EX:<1>Feelings = They fell in love. <1>Qualities = The horse is a beauty. <1>Ideas = She is in good health.

    Abbreviate

    To make shorter by omitting letters of a word. <1>EX: <1>Incorporation = Inc. <1>Corporation = Corp.

    Abbreviation

    A shortened form of a word or phrase. <1>EX: <1>Dr. for Doctor <1>Inc. for Incorporation

    Acronym

    A word formed from the first (or first few) letters of several words.

    EX: <1>radar = ra(dio) d(etecting) a(nd) r(anging) <1>scuba = s(elf-)c(ontained) u(nderwater) b(reathing) a(pparatus) Action Verb

    An action verb describes activity. <1>EX:<1>I run / swim / walk for fun.

    Adverbial Conjunction

    Adverbial conjunctions join sentences or clauses of equal importance and include: besides, furthermore, hence, likewise, moreover, therefore, and thus. The adverbial conjunction usually follows a semicolon. <1>EX: Jenny likes to swim; therefore she plans to join the swim team.

    Antecedent

    An antecedent is a word or group of words that a pronoun stands for. <1>EX: He is a man who seldom complains.

    Antonym

    A word that is opposite in meaning to another word. <1>EX:<1>sad is an antonym of happy

    Apostrophe

    An apostrophe is the mark ( ) indicating:

    Contractions: the omission of a letter or letters in a word. <1>EX: <1>that's for that is <1>isn't for is not <1><1>"0a54">Common Contractions <1><1>Omission of Figures: the omission of a number. <1>EX: The class of '80.(Instead of 1980.)<1><1>Plurals: certain plural forms. <1>EX: <1>Dot your is and cross your ts. <1>1900's <1>Figure 8s<1><1>Possessive Case: of indefinite pronouns, proper nouns, and nouns. <1>EX: <1>his uncle's house <1>Someones great idea <1>Marys dress Appositive

    An appositive is a noun word or phrase that renames or explains the noun it follows. <1>EX: <1>Cooper, my son, is here. <1>The writer Serena was a leader in community affairs.

    Article

    An article is any of a class of words used to signal nouns and to specify their application. <1>EX: a, an, the

    Assonance

    Assonance is the likeness of vowel sounds between words. <1>EX: tree and be, late and make

    Autobiography

    An autobiography is the story of ones own life written by oneself.

    Auxiliary Verbs

    Auxiliary verbs are the same as helping verbs, they help the main verb describe an action occurring in the past, present, or future.

    There are 23 helping verbs: <1>am, are, be, been, being, can, could, did, do, does, has, had, have, is, may, might, must, shall, should, was, were, will, would.

    EX: <1>Freya will have gone tomorrow.<1>You may go.

    Bibliography

    A bibliography is a list of writings on a given subject or by a given author. A list of information sources used for articles, reports, or papers. A bibliography includes: author, publication, title, publisher, and date and place of publication. <1>EX: S. E. Dalton, Gardening: How to Grow Vegetables (Salt Lake City: Team Player Books, 2000).

    Biography

    A biography is the story of a person's life written by another person.

    Brackets

    Brackets are either of the signs [ ] used to enclose a word, etc.

    Within Parentheses: Brackets are used to enclose material inserted within information already in parentheses. <1>EX: (Washington [D.C.], July, 1976)

    Indicating a Different Author: Brackets are used to enclose words or passages in quotations, in order to indicate the insertion of material written by someone other than the original writer. <1>EX: On the outside of the city [according to some] are ancient caves.

    Capital Letter

    Capital letters are the form of an alphabetical letter used to begin a sentence or proper name. <1>EX: A, B, C, etc. Mercury is the planet closest to the sun.

    Capitalization

    Capitalization is to begin a word with a capital letter. <1>EX: School

    "002b">30 Rules of Capitalization

    Case

    Case is the use of a noun or pronoun to show its relation to neighboring words in a sentence.

    Nominative Case: a noun or pronoun functioning as the subject or predicate noun in a sentence. <1>EX: <1>Mary is a girl. <1>I shall welcome whoever wants to attend.<1><1>Possessive Case: denotes ownership, possession, or connection. <1>EX: Ryans dog loves to ride in the car.<1><1>Objective Case: use of a noun or pronoun as a direct object, indirect object, and object of the preposition. <1>EX: <1>Jack hit the ball.(direct object) <1>George gave me the ball.(indirect object) <1>We ran into her yesterday.(object of the preposition) Collective Noun

    A collective noun is a singular noun denoting a group of people. <1>EX: humankind, class, tribe

    Colon

    A colon is a mark of punctuation ( : ) used before a long quotation, explanation, example, series, etc. and after the salutation of a formal letter.

    Introduce a Long Quotation: The colon is used to introduce a long quotation. <1>EX: In the President's message, Mr. Kennedy said: "Our nation"

    Biblical References: The colon separates chapter and verse numbers in reference to Bible quotations. <1>EX: Mark 5:12

    Introduce Lists: Colons are used to introduce lists. <1>EX: Included in the survival kit are the following: knife, flashlight, matches, etc.

    Following a Salutation: The colon follows the salutation in a formal letter. <1>EX: Dear Dr. Smith:

    Time: Colons are used to separate the hour and minute in time designations. <1>EX: 4:30 pm

    Amplify, Explain, Summarize, etc: The colon introduces phrases, words, or clauses that amplify <1>EX: He told the people what they wanted to hear: their investments looked as though they would produce a profit.explain <1>EX: Hard determinism is the theory that there are no free acts: even so, doesnt a person feel free most of the time when he makes a choice?summarize <1>EX: Fortunately, he had many redeeming virtues: he would do volunteer work, make monetary donations, help his aged mother, and mows his neighbors lawn.exemplify what preceded. <1>EX: All of a sudden I knew where I was: Disneyland. Comma

    A comma is a mark of punctuation ( , ) used to indicate a slight separation of sentence elements. Commas have multiple functions and uses:

    Appositives: Commas set off nonrestrictive appositives. <1>EX: Paul, the congressman's son, was in my graduating class.<1><1>Compound Sentence: Commas separate the clauses of a compound sentence connected by a coordinating conjunction. <1>EX: There are obvious differences between the art works of Bill and Karen, but then it's those differences that bring them together.<1><1>Dates: Commas separate the year from the month in dates. <1>EX:<1>December 27, 1942 is his birthday. <1>March 1968 is the month of his birthday.(No comma between month and year.)<1><1>Direct Address: Commas set off words used in a direct address. <1>EX: Thank you, Karen, for your support.<1><1>Geographical Names: Commas set off the state from the city in geographical names. <1>EX: San Francisco, California is referred to as the City by the Bay.<1><1>Introduce a Sentence: Commas set off words used to introduce a sentence. <1>EX: Yes, I'll go to the game tonight.<1><1>Large Numbers: Commas separate series of four or more figures into thousands, millions, etc. <1>EX: <1>1,000 <1>56,200 <1>$1,000,000.00<1><1>Nonrestrictive Phrase: Commas set off a non-restrictive phrase or clause. <1>EX: The mechanic, with yellow shoes, is the same mechanic who works on my car.<1><1>Omission of Words: Commas are used to indicate the omission of a word or words. <1>EX: To err is human, to forgive, divine.<1><1>Quotations and Sayings: Commas set off short quotations and sayings. <1>EX: Sharon told him, Come tomorrow for lunch.<1><1>Salutation and Close: Commas follow the salutation and the complimentary close of informal letters and the complimentary close of formal letters. <1>EX: <1>Dear Michelle, <1>Sincerely, Pete<1><1>Separate "and" &"or": Commas separate "and" & "or" from the final item in a series of three or more. <1>EX: Yellow, red, orange, and blue were the obvious colors.<1><1>Separate Adjectives: Commas separate two or more adjectives modifying the same noun if "and" could be used between them without changing the meaning. <1>EX: A large, heavy desk<1><1>Separate Questions: Commas separate a phrase that transforms a statement into a question. <1>EX: You did say that you took the car, didn't you?<1><1>Separate Subordinate Clauses: Commas set off a subordinate clause or a long phrase that precedes the principal clause. <1>EX: After all was said and done, the issue remained unresolved.<1><1>To Clarify a Sentence: Commas set off any sentence elements that might be misread if the comma were not used. <1>EX: Some time after, the actual message was sent.<1><1>Transitional Words: Commas set of transitional words and short expressions that require a pause in reading. <1>EX: Unfortunately, Dave didn't wear his seatbelt that night. Common Adjective

    Common adjectives describe nouns in a general way including size, shape, color, and character. <1>EX: big, round, yellow, friendly

    Common Noun

    Common nouns are general names for people, places, and things. All nouns other than proper nouns are common. <1>EX: friend, mall, backpack

    Complete Predicate

    Complete predicates are a verb and any descriptive word or phrase that makes a statement about the subject. <1>EX: The lion roared loudly at the trainer.

    Complete Subject

    Complete subjects are a noun along with any descriptive word or phrase that goes with it. <1>EX: The pretty girl on the dance floor danced all night.

    Complex Sentence

    Complex sentences are made up of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. <1>EX: The second graders left the classroom early because of the fire drill.

    Compound Noun

    A compound noun is formed from two or more words (not necessarily nouns). The meaning of the words together is different from the meaning of the words on their own. <1>EX: <1>day + dream = daydream <1>hold + up = holdup <1>work + man = workman

    Compound Predicate

    Compound predicates are found in sentences where two or more action verbs of equal rank are described. <1>EX: <1>The horse whinnied and snorted.

    Compound Sentence

    Compound sentences are made up of two or more simple sentences connected by a conjunction. <1>EX: The girls played soccer and the boys played football.

    Compound Subject

    A compound subject is two or more simple subjects connected by a conjunction. <1>EX: My dad and I watched my sister graduate from college.

    Compound Word

    A compound word is a word made up of two words that can stand alone. It would be divided between the two words of which it is composed. <1>EX: eyelid, eye-lid (to divide)

    Concrete Noun

    Concrete nouns are persons, places, and things that one can physically touch, see, taste, smell, or hear. <1>EX: bread, woman, restaurant

    Consonants

    A consonant is a letter representing a speech sound made by obstructing the air stream. <1>EX: p, t, l, f, etc.

    Contraction

    A contraction is a shortened form of a word or phrase. <1>EX: <1>dont for do not <1>wouldnt for would not

    "0a54">Commonly used Contractions

    Coordinating Conjunction

    Coordinating conjunctions join words, phrases, sentences, and clauses of equal rank together and include: and, but, nor, so, or, and yet. <1>EX: The girls arrived early and played football.

    Correlative Conjunction

    Correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs in a sentence or phrase even though they are separated by other words. These include: both/and, either/or, neither/nor. <1>EX: We should have given them either the food or the water.

    Dangling Participle

    One of three types of participle. Past Participle: a participle is used <1>a) to signify a past time or state <1>EX: He has gone. <1>b) as an adjective (usually ends in "ed", "en", "d", "t" or "n", and follows the helping verbs "have" or "had") <1>EX:Pete is a grown man.<1><1>Present Participle: a participle used to express present or continuing action or existence. Usually ends in "ing" and precedes the helping verbs for "to be". <1>EX: <1>He is growing. He is running. He is trying. <1>Anthony is going to be a snowball in the Christmas play.<1><1>Dangling Participle: a verbal adjective that has nothing to modify. <1>EX: Running down the street, the ball was thrown. (Running is the dangling participle because there is no noun or pronoun for it to modify.) The correct sentence would be: Running down the street, he threw the ball. <1>HINT: The error usually occurs because the clause that the participle should modify is in the passive rather than the active voice. Dash

    A dash is the mark of punctuation ( - ) used to indicate a break, omission, etc.

    There are six ways to use a dash:

    Author of a Quote: A dash sets off the name of an author or a source, as at the end of a quotation. <1>EX: The only thing to fear is fear itself. -Winston Churchill<1><1>Change in Continuity: A dash is used to indicate a sudden break or abrupt change in continuity. <1>EX: And then the crime - if it is a crime - can be solved.<1><1>Explanatory Phrase: A dash sets apart a defining or explanatory phrase. <1>EX: He suddenly realized what the "A" on his term paper meant - graduation.<1><1>Mark Unfinished Sentences: A dash is used to mark an unfinished sentence. <1>EX: She walked into the room and -<1><1>Parenthetical Material: A dash is used to set off material that is parenthetical in nature. <1>EX: Karen - who had an angelic face, short blonde hair, and blue eyes - was actually a monster.<1><1>Summarizing Word, Phrase or Clause: A dash is used to set off a summarizing word, phrase or clause. <1>EX: Christmas, Easter, Thanksgiving - these are among my favorite holidays. Delarative Sentence

    A declaritive sentence makes a statement or assertion. <1>EX: Life is good.

    Demonstrative Adjectives

    These are the same words as demonstrative pronouns, but if used with a noun, they answer the question "which one?" <1>EX: <1>This cake is good, but those cupcakes are better. <1>That dog is hers.

    Demonstrative Pronouns

    Demonstrative pronouns refer to specific people, places, or things, and include: this, that, these, those. <1>EX: Who is this?

    Dewey Decimal System

    Melvin Dewey, an American librarian (1851-1931), invented the Dewey Decimal System that numbers books by their subject matter in the following way:

    000-099

    General works (encyclopedias, magazines, almanacs, bibliographies)

    100-199

    Philosophy, Psychology, Ethics

    200-299

    Religion and Myths

    300-399

    Sociology (Civics, Economics, Education)

    400-499

    Philology (language, dictionaries, grammar)

    500-599

    Science (Math, Chemistry, Biology, Botany)

    600-699

    Useful Arts (Medicine, Agriculture)

    700-799

    Fine Arts (Painting, Music, Photography)

    800-899

    Literature (novels, poetry, plays)

    900-999

    History, Geography, Biography

    Direct Object

    A direct object is a noun or pronoun which receives the action from the subject of the sentence. <1>EX: Adam hit the ball.

    Rules for Dividing Words

    HINT: Words are generally divided between syllables. All dictionaries will separate the syllables of a word with a symbol. <1>EX: glos-sar-y

    "0eb9">Rules for Dividing Hyphenated Words

    "0eba">Rules for Dividing Words Containing a Prefix

    "0ebb">Rules for Dividing Words Containing a Suffix

    "0ebc">Rules for Dividing Statistical Units

    Double Interior Consonant

    Double interior consonants are two of the same letter other than vowels in the middle of a word. <1>EX: common

    RULE: Divide a word between the double interior consonants. <1>EX: com-mon

    e.g

    Short for the Latin term "exempli gracia " meaning "for example."

    Ellipsis

    An ellipse is a mark ( ) indicating an omission of words, omission of lines, and pause in speech.

    Omission of Words: Ellipses indicate the omission of words or sentences in quoted material or an unfinished sentence. <1>EX: They too have been deaf to the voice of justice...<1><1>Omission of Lines: Ellipses can be used to indicate the omission of a line or lines of poetry. <1>EX: <1>Come away, O human child! <1>... <1>For the world's more full of <1>Weeping than you can understand. <1>-William Butler Yeats<1><1>Pause in Speech: Ellipses are used to indicate a pause in speech. <1>EX: "Yes...I mean...what he stammered.

    Epithet

    An epithet is a word or phrase characterizing some person or thing. <1>EX: <1>Richard the Lion Hearted <1>the cold war

    Exclamation Point

    An exclamation point is a mark ( ! ) used in punctuating to indicate an expression of intense emotion, a command, or an empathic sentence or phrase. <1>EX: <1>Great! <1>You can't be serious! <1>Get out of here!

    Exclamatory Sentences

    Exclamatory sentences express strong feelings. <1>EX: I feel great!

    Gerund

    A gerund is a verb form that ends in ing and acts as a noun. <1>EX: <1>being, wanting, going <1>Running is a great sport. <1>I like teaching football to beginners.

    Gerund Phrase

    Gerund phrases are groups of two or more words that contain a gerund. <1>EX: <1>She didnt appreciate my being there. <1>Running quickly and efficiently is a great sport.

    Grammar

    Grammar is the parts of a language along with its rules for writing and speaking that language.

    "0ebd">Basic Grammar Rules

    Helping Verb

    A helping verb helps the main verb describe an action occurring in the past, present, or future.

    There are 23 helping verbs: am, are, be, been, being, can, could, did, do, does, has, had, have, is, may, might, must, shall, should, was, were, will, would. <1>EX: <1>Jill will have gone tomorrow. <1>You may go.

    Hieroglyphic

    A hieroglyphic is a picture or symbol representing a word, sound, etc., in a system used by ancient Egyptians and others.

    Homonym

    A word with the same pronunciation as another word but with a different meaning, origin, and/or spelling. <1>EX:<1>capital and capitol are homonyms.

    Hyphen

    A hyphen is a mark ( - ) used between the parts of a compound word or the syllables of a divided word, as at the end of a line.

    Separate Prefix: Hyphens are used to separate the prefix and root in some combinations. <1>EX: co-worker<1><1>Substitution of "to": A hyphen can substitute the word "to" between two words or figures. <1>EX: <1>read pages 6-20 <1>San Francisco-New York flight<1><1>Continuation of Words: At the end of a line, the hyphen indicates that part of a word of more than one syllable has been carried over to the following line. <1>EX: On his way to the con-<1>struction site, John stopped at the donut shop.<1><1>Join Compound Words: Hyphens are used to join elements of some compound words. <1>EX: <1>great-grandmother <1>cure-all<1><1>Joining Compound Modifiers: Hyphens are used to join elements of compound modifiers preceding a noun. <1>EX: <1>fifteen high-school students <1>built-in cabinets <1>a well-dressed student<1><1>Indicating a Single Base: Hyphens indicate that two or more compounds share a single base. <1>EX: nine- and ten-year olds, five- and six-volume sets

    "09f3">Dividing Words Rules

    i.e.

    Short for the Latin term "id est" meaning "that is."

    Imperative Sentence

    An imperative sentence requests action or gives commands. <1>EX: Open the window and jump to the tree.

    Indefinite Pronoun

    An indefinite pronoun refers to or replaces a noun in a general way. Some are used as adjectives followed by nouns. These include: one, any each, none, some, another, anybody, anyone, everybody, everyone, few, either, someone, both, anything, somebody, all, everything, many, neither, nobody, none.

    EX: <1>Its anyones game. <1>Many are called but few are chosen. <1>My heart belongs to another. <1>Everybodys business is nobodys business.

    Indirect Object

    An indirect object is an object that receives an action indirectly from the subject. <1>EX: George gave me the ball.

    Infinitive

    An infinitive is a verb form without reference to person, number, or tense: usually preceded by to. <1>EX: I want to go.

    Infinitive Phrase

    Infinitive phrases are groups of two or more words consisting of an infinitive verb or an infinitive verb plus an adverb. NOTE: Infinitive verbs begin with the word "to". <1>EX: We wanted to run well.

    Initial

    An initial is the first letter of a name. <1>EX: John Smith

    Intensive Pronoun

    An intensive pronoun emphasizes another pronoun or noun. <1>EX: <1>We ourselves created a new game. <1>The Governor himself presented the award.

    Interior Consonant

    Interior consonants are letters other than vowels in the middle of a word. <1>EX: double

    Interrogative Pronoun

    Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. <1>EX: Who?

    Interrogative Sentence

    Interrogative sentences ask a question. <1>EX: Is life good?

    Irregular Verb

    Irregular verbs are verbs that do not conjugate by adding d or ed. <1>EX: do, did, done

    Linguistics

    Linguistics is the science of language, or the study of a particular language.

    Linking Verbs

    Linking verbs describe state of being or existence that is not action: is, be, am, are, was, were, been.

    EX: <1>Joann is happy. <1>He was sad. <1>They were funny.

    Lower Case

    Lower case letters are small-letter type used in printing, as distinguished from capital letters. <1>EX: kitten

    Metaphor

    A metaphor is a figure of speech in which one thing is spoken of as if it were another. A comparison of different things to show a likeness between them, not preceded by the words like or as. <1>EX: <1>All the worlds a stage. <1>The growing boy was a weed. <1>My love is a red red rose.

    Meter

    Meter is the rhythmic pattern in poetry created by putting more or less emphasis on certain syllables.

    Morpheme

    A morpheme is the smallest meaningful language unit, as a base or affix. One syllable word or word part. <1>EX: <1>man, most <1>ly, al

    Morphemics

    Morphemics is the study of units of sound that carry meaning.

    Morphology

    Morphology is the study of how language changes over time and location.

    Number

    A number is a symbol or word showing how many or which one in a series. <1>EX: 2, 27, four, sixth

    RULE: Use a symbol if numbers are repeated often in a document. <1>EX: She makes $80,000.00 per year.

    Spell out the figure if numbers arent used often in a document. <1>EX: She makes eighty thousand dollars per year.

    Object of the Preposition

    The object of the preposition is a noun or any word or group of words used as a noun which follows the preposition. <1>EX: We ran into her yesterday.

    Object Pronoun

    An object pronoun is used with a noun or pronoun as a part of the direct object. <1>EX: We saw them in swimming.

    Onomatopoeia

    Onomatopoeia is the formation of words by imitating sounds. <1>EX: bang, pop, clang, buzz

    Oxymoron

    An oxymoron is comparing two unlike or contradictory things. <1>EX: <1>The honest thief. <1>A mournful optimist.

    Paragraph

    A paragraph is a distinct section of a writing, begun on a new line and often indented. A group of sentences that describe the same idea.

    Parenthesis

    Parenthesis are either of the curved lines ( ) used to set off a word, clause, etc.

    Words not Essential: Parentheses are used to enclose material that is not essential to the sentence and would not alter the meaning if not included. <1>EX: In one hour's time (some say more), it's possible to walk eight miles.

    Enclose Identifiers: Parentheses can be used to enclose numbers or letters to indicate subdivisions of a series. <1>EX: An airplane can rotate on the following axis': (a) longitudinal (b) vertical and (c) horizontal.

    Participial Phrase

    A participial phrase is groups of two or more words that begin with participles. <1>EX: Longing to go to the party, Mary dressed up.

    Past Participle Past Participle: a participle is used: <1>a) to signify a past time or state <1>EX: He has gone. <1>b) as an adjective (usually ends in "ed", "en", "d", "t" or "n", and follows the helping verbs "have" or "had") <1>EX: John is a grown man.<1><1>Present Participle: a participle used to express present or continuing action or existence. Usually ends in "ing" and precedes the helping verbs for "to be". <1>EX: <1>He is growing. <1>He is running. <1>He is trying. <1>Anthony is going to be a snowball in the Christmas play.<1><1>Dangling Participle:a verbal adjective that has nothing to modify. <1>EX: Running down the street, the ball was thrown. <1>Running is the dangling participle because there is no noun or pronoun for it to modify. The correct sentence would be: <1>Running down the street, he threw the ball. <1>HINT: The error usually occurs because the clause that the participle should modify is in the passive rather than the active voice. Period

    A period is the mark of punctuation ( . ) used at the end of a sentence.

    To End a Sentence: A period is used to indicate the end of a complete declarative of a mild imperative sentence. <1>EX: I am happy.

    Indicate Abbreviations: A period is used following the abbreviation of a word or words. <1>EX: Feb., Mr., Inc.

    Personal Pronoun

    A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or animal. <1>These include: I, we, us, me, my, mine, our, ours, you, ye, thou, thee, your, yours, he, she, it, they, him, her, them, his, her, hers, its, their, theirs. <1>EX: He will play in the game.

    Personify

    Personify is to think of or represent (a thing) as a person. <1>EX: I met Jealousy at the school dance.

    Philology

    Philology is the study of how a language of a culture affects its literature. Earlier term for Linguistics.

    Phonetics

    Phonetics is the study of the production and written representation of speech sounds.

    Pictograph

    A pictograph is a picture or picture-like symbol used in a system of writing.

    Plural Noun

    A plural noun names more than one person, place or thing. <1>EX: women, men

    Poem

    A poem is an arrangement of words, especially a rhythmical composition, sometimes rhymed, in a style more imaginative than ordinary speech. <1>EX: <1>Lay me in a cushioned chair; <1>Carry me, ye four, <1>With cushions here and cushions there, <1>To see the world once more. <1>-William Butler Yeats

    Poetry

    Poetry is the writing of "0a25">poems.

    Possessive Pronoun

    Possessive pronouns are used to show ownership or possession. <1>EX: mine, yours <1>NOTE: Do not use an apostrophe ( ) in a possessive pronoun. (i.e. yours)

    Predicate

    A predicate is the word or words that make a statement about the subject.

    Complete Predicate: a verb and any descriptive word or phrase that makes a statement about the subject. <1>EX: The lion roared loudly at the trainer.<1><1>Compound Predicate: found in sentences where two or more different actions are described. <1>EX: The horse whinnied and snorted.

    Predicate Adjective

    Predicate adjectives are used to complete the meaning of a verb and to modify the subject. Usually predicate adjectives follow the verbs be, seem, become, appear, and the verbs pertaining to the five senses, look, smell, taste, sound, feel. <1>EX: <1>She is sad. <1>He looks happy.

    Predicate Noun

    A predicate noun is a word or words which complete the meaning of a verb. <1>EX: <1>Harry is a baker. <1>We made him our secretary.

    Prefix

    A prefix is a set of letters at the beginning of a word used to combine meanings. <1>EX: "bio" (Greek, meaning life) in the word Biology - the study of living.

    In words made up of a prefix and a word, always divide after the whole prefix.<1>EX:<1>Ante - cedent<1>Anti - biotic<1>Co - operation<1>Bi - annual<1>Non - existent

    "0ebe">Greek and Latin Prefixes

    Prepositional Phrase

    A prepositional phrase is a group of two or more words that begin with a preposition and end with a noun or pronoun. <1>NOTE: The noun or pronoun at the end of a prepositional phrase is known as the "object" and/or "object of the preposition." <1>EX: We traveled around the world.

    Present Participle Past Participle: a participle is used: <1>a) to signify a past time or state <1>EX: He has gone. <1>b) as an adjective (usually ends in "ed", "en", "d", "t" or "n", and follows the helping verbs "have" or "had") <1>EX: John is a grown man.<1><1>Present Participle: a participle used to express present or continuing action or existence. Usually ends in "ing" and precedes the helping verbs for "to be". <1>EX: <1>He is growing. <1>He is running. <1>He is trying. <1>Anthony is going to be a snowball in the Christmas play.<1><1>Dangling Participle:a verbal adjective that has nothing to modify. <1>EX: Running down the street, the ball was thrown. <1>Running is the dangling participle because there is no noun or pronoun for it to modify. The correct sentence would be: <1>Running down the street, he threw the ball. <1>HINT: The error usually occurs because the clause that the participle should modify is in the passive rather than the active voice. Principal Clause

    A principal clause also called independent or main clause, can stand alone as a complete sentence. <1>EX: The cat was healthy.

    Proper Adjective

    A proper adjectives is always capitalized and created from proper nouns. <1>EX: America, American

    Proper noun

    Proper nouns name specific people or places. They may also refer to times or to dates in the calendar. <1>EX: John, Queen Mary, London, January, Tuesday, Christmas

    Prose

    Prose is writing that is like ordinary language, not like poetry. <1>EX: <1>These themes and others can be unearthed in Rogers plays, which surely are worth reading. Such is the authors skill that he can build great depth into some of his characters, a rare accomplishment. It is obvious that he has lavished care upon them.

    Punctuate

    To punctuate is to use certain standardized marks (punctuation marks).

    "0ebf">Punctuation Rules

    Punctuation Marks

    Punctuation marks are standardized marks such as the period, comma, etc. in written matter to clarify meaning.

    "0ebf">Punctuation Rules

    Question Mark

    A question marks is a mark of punctuation ( ? ) put after a sentence or word to indicate a direct question, or to express doubt, uncertainty, etc.

    To End a Question: Question marks are used to indicate the end of a direct question. <1>EX: How old are you?

    Indicate Uncertainty: A question mark can be used to indicate uncertainty. <1>EX: He was on duty from 1:30 am (?) to 12:00 pm.

    Quotation Marks

    Quotation marks are a pair of punctuation marks ("") and () used to enclose quotations. There are two types of quotation marks, double and single:

    Quotation Marks (Double): a pair of punctuation marks ("") used to enclose a direct quotation. <1>EX: "What was it like in Italy?" she asked.<1> Foreign Words or Phrases: Double quotation marks set off the translation of a foreign word or phrase. <1>EX: The word "shalom" means peace.<1>Clarify Meaning: Double quotation marks enclose words or phrases to clarify their meaning or use, or to indicate that they are being used in a special way. <1>EX: By "silence" I mean don't talk! <1>Titles of Books, etc.: Double quotation marks are used to set off titles of a series of books, essays, songs and short musical pieces, television programs, etc. <1>EX: Chapter 10, "Circulatory System" <1>"The Bob Hope Special"<1>"The Dick Powell Western Series" <1><1>Quotation Marks (Single): a pair of punctuation marks () used to enclose quoted material within a quotation. <1>EX: "To me, the reason for being alive is 'living'," he said.

    Rules for Punctuation with Quotations:

    Commas and periods should be put inside closing quotation marks.Colons and semicolons should be put outside the closing quotation marks.All other punctuation (e.g. question marks and exclamation points) should be put inside the closing quotation marks only when they are part of the matter being quoted. Reflexive Pronouns

    Reflexive pronouns are used to refer back to subject pronouns and pronouns. They are often used for emphasis. <1>EX: <1>myself, yourselves, and itself <1>The boy hurt himself.

    Relative Pronoun

    A relative pronoun connects a subordinate clause with a main clause. <1>EX: who, whom, which, that, what.He is the one whom I love.

    Regular Verb

    A regular verb is a verb that can change from the present to the past and past participle by adding "ed" or "d". <1>EX: <1>Now I jump. <1>Yesterday I jumped. <1>I have jumped. <1>I will close the door. <1>Yesterday I closed the door. <1>I have closed the door.

    Semantics

    Semantics is the study of development and changes of the meanings of words.

    Semicolon

    A semicolon is a mark of punctuation ( ; ) indicating a degree of separation greater than that marked by the comma.

    No Coordinating Conjunction:<1>semicolons separate the clauses of a compound sentence having no coordinating conjunction. <1>EX: Many motorists were stranded by the accident; smoke and flames were everywhere.<1><1>With a Conjunctive Adverb: semicolons separate clauses of a compound sentence joined by a conjunctive adverb. <1>EX: She demanded a full refund; otherwise she would contact the Better Business Bureau.<1><1>Separate a Compound Sentence: semicolons are used to separate the clauses of a compound sentence where the clauses contain internal punctuation, even when the clause is joined by a conjunction. <1>EX: Rifles in hand, we walked to the edge of the jungle, cleared an area, and dug our foxholes; and the rest of the platoon moved in by helicopter.<1><1>Separate Elements: semicolons separate elements of a series in which items already contain commas. <1>EX: Among the guests were Bob Johnson; his son, Frank; Tony Smith, formerly of MIT; and three others I didn't know. Simile

    A simile is a figure of speech that compares two unlike things usually using the words "like" or "as". <1>EX: The lion roared like a jet engine.

    Simple Predicate

    A simple predicate is a verb in the predicate. <1>EX: The horse whinnied.

    Simple Subject

    A simple subject is a noun or pronoun that states "who" or "what" a clause or sentence is about. <1>EX: The girl played chess.

    Singular Noun

    Singular nouns name only one person, place, or thing. <1> EX: woman, man, house

    Spelling

    Spelling is to name in order the letters of a word.

    "0030">Spelling Rules

    Split Infinitive

    A split infinitive is when an adverbial modifier is placed between to and the infinitive. <1>EX: <1>CORRECT Clearly to state. <1>INCORRECT To clearly state. <1><1>EX: <1>CORRECT I wanted to pray fervently. <1>INCORRECT I wanted to fervently pray.

    Subject Pronoun

    A subject pronoun is used with a noun or pronoun as a part of the subject of a sentence or clause. <1>EX: She and I went to the mall last night.

    Subjunctive Mood

    Subjunctive mood expresses a wish or an unreality. <1>EX: <1>I wish I were home in bed. <1>Jason sounded as though he were far away.

    Subordinate Clause

    A subordinate clause also called dependant clause, functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb. <1>EX: The cat was healthy because she ate well.

    Subordinating Conjunction

    Subordinating conjunctions join dependent clauses with independent clauses and include: after, as, as if, until, whenever, where, and wherever. <1>EX: I am lying on this bed until my back feels better.

    Statistical Units

    Statistical units are any numerical datum such as temperatures, years, time, latitudes, longitudes or similar units. <1>EX: <1>1400 B.C. <1>SSW <1>4:30 A.M.

    Suffix

    A suffix is a syllable or syllables added at the end of a word to alter its meaning, etc. <1>EX: ness in darkness

    In words where the final consonant is doubled in the formation of inflected forms by the addition of a suffix, the division should be between the consonants.<1>EX: <1>dim-mer <1>bar-ring <1>control-ling

    If the root word ends in a double or single consonant, make the division after the consonant(s). <1>EX: <1>fall-en <1>confid-ing <1>confess-ing

    "0ec0">Greek and Latin Suffixes

    Syllable

    A syllable is a word or part of a word pronounced with a single, uninterrupted sounding of the voice. <1>EX: glos-ar-y = three syllables

    HINT: Words are generally divided between syllables. All dictionaries will separate the syllables of a word with a symbol

    Synonym

    A word having the same or nearly the same meaning, in one or more sense, as another word in the same language. <1>EX:<1>sad is a synonym of unhappy

    Syntax

    Syntax is the way in which words are put together to form phrases and sentences. <1>EX: <1>The water was very deep and cold. <1>The cold water was very deep.

    Title

    A title is the name of a poem, book, picture, etc.

    Upper Case

    Upper case is the capital-letter type used in printing, as distinguished from small letters. <1>EX: KITTEN

    Verb Tenses Present Tense(now): <1>The dog has fleas.<1><1>Past Tense(before now): <1>The dog had fleas.<1><1>Future Tense(not yet): <1>The dog will have fleas.<1><1>Present Perfect Tense (started in the past and continues up into the present): <1>The dog has had fleas all her life.<1><1>Past Perfect Tense (finished before some other past action): <1>The dog had had fleas for four years until we bought her a flea collar.<1><1>Future Perfect Tense (action will start and end in the future): <1>I will have gone to school for four years before I graduate. Verb Phrase

    Verb phrases are groups of two or more verbs that describe an action, such as: have come, had gone, and would have come. <1>EX: She would have come to the party but had other plans.

    Verbals

    Verbals are verbs used as other parts of speech. These include participles, gerunds, and infinitives.

    Virgule

    A virgule is a diagonal line ( / ) used in dates or fractions, and also standing for or, per, etc.

    Fractions: separate the numerator from the denominator in a fraction. <1>EX: 3/4

    To Indicate "or": means "or" between the words "and" & "or". <1>EX: Jim and/or Karen will attend the meeting.

    To Indicate "per": represents the word "per". <1>EX: 25 miles/hour

    Separate Lines in Text: A virgule separates two or more lines of poetry quoted in text. <1>EX: The actress had a memory lapse when she came to the lines, "Why? All delights are vain, but that most vain/which, with pain purchas'd, doth inherit pain, and had to improvise.

    Vowel

    A vowel is a letter representing a speech sound in which the air passes in a continuous stream through the open mouth. <1>EX: a, e, i, o, u

    Vowel Digraph

    A vowel diagraph is usually two vowels written together that either stand for a long vowel sound <1>EX: "ea" = bean<1><1>form a new sound. <1>EX: "ou" = out

    Uses of Who and Whom

    Use Who in the nominative case: <1>EX: <1>Who is going to win? (subject of the sentence) <1>We wondered who to ask. (subject of the infinitive)

    Use Whom in the objective case: <1>EX: <1>Whom did she see at the ballgame? (direct object) <1>He gave whom the ball? (indirect object) <1>They gave the tickets to whom? (object of the preposition)

    Writing

    Writing is to compose literary material.

    "09f3">Rules for Dividing Words

    "0031">Steps to Writing a Term Paper

    Commonly Used Contractions

    aren't

    are not

    can't

    cannot

    couldn't

    could not

    could've

    could have

    didn't

    did not

    doesn't

    does not

    don't

    do not

    hadn't

    had not

    hasn't

    has not

    haven't

    have not

    he'd

    he had/ he would

    he'll

    he will

    he's

    he is

    I'm

    I am

    isn't

    is not

    it'd

    it had/ it would

    it'll

    it will

    it's

    it is

    let's

    let us

    mightn't

    might not

    might've

    might have

    musn't

    must not

    she'd

    she had/ she would

    she'll

    she will

    she's

    she is

    shouldn't

    should not

    should've

    should have

    there'd

    there had/ there would

    there'll

    there will

    there's

    there is

    they'll

    they will

    they're

    they are

    'twas

    it was

    wasn't

    was not

    we'll

    we will

    we're

    we are

    weren't

    were not

    what'd

    what had/what would

    what's

    what is

    won't

    will not

    wouldn't

    would not

    would've

    would have

    you'll

    you will

    you're

    you are

    Antigua(and Barbuda)

    Country:

    Antigua (and Barbuda)

    Geographic Region:

    Central America - Caribbean

    Land Area:

    171 sq. miles

    Population:

    100,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    585

    Monetary Unit:

    East Caribbean Dollar

    Languages:

    English

    Religions:

    Anglican, Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +1

    Capital City:

    St. John's

    Natural Resources:

    Negligible

    Major Exports:

    petroleum

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs

    Form of Government:

    Constitutional Monarchy Bahamas

    Country:

    Bahamas

    Geographic Region:

    Central America - Caribbean

    Land Area:

    5,380 sq. miles

    Population:

    300,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    55.7

    Monetary Unit:

    Bahamian Dollar

    Languages:

    English

    Religions:

    Anglican, Roman Catholic, Methodist

    Time Zone (from EST):

    0

    Capital City:

    Nassau

    Natural Resources:

    salt, aragonite, timber

    Major Exports:

    rum, crawfish, cement

    Major Imports:

    fuels, foodstuffs, manufactured goods

    Form of Government:

    Independent Commonwealth Barbados

    Country:

    Barbados

    Geographic Region:

    Central America - Caribbean

    Land Area:

    166 sq. miles

    Population:

    300, 000

    Population Density per square mile:

    1807.2

    Monetary Unit:

    Barbados Dollar

    Languages:

    English

    Religions:

    Anglican, Methodist, Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +1

    Capital City:

    Bridgetown

    Natural Resources:

    crude oil, fish, natural gas

    Major Exports:

    sugar, molasses, chemicals, clothing, rum

    Major Imports:

    raw materials, foodstuffs, crude oil

    Form of Government:

    Parliamentary Democracy Belize

    Country:

    Belize

    Geographic Region:

    Central America - Caribbean

    Land Area:

    8,867 sq. miles

    Population:

    230,160

    Population Density per square mile:

    30

    Monetary Unit:

    Belize Dollar

    Languages:

    English, Spanish, Maya

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    -1

    Capital City:

    Belmopan

    Natural Resources:

    timber, fish

    Major Exports:

    sugar, bananas, citrus, clothing

    Major Imports:

    machinery, foodstuffs

    Form of Government:

    Parliamentary Democracy Costa Rica

    Country:

    Costa Rica

    Geographic Region:

    Central America - Caribbean

    Land Area:

    19,652 sq. miles

    Population:

    3,604,652

    Population Density per square mile:

    183.4

    Monetary Unit:

    Colon

    Languages:

    Spanish

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    -1

    Capital City:

    San Jose

    Natural Resources:

    hydroelectric power potential

    Major Exports:

    coffee, bananas, sugar, textiles

    Major Imports:

    capital goods, petroleum

    Form of Government:

    Republic Cuba

    Country:

    Cuba

    Geographic Region:

    Central America - Caribbean

    Land Area:

    44,218 sq. miles

    Population:

    11,050,729

    Population Density per square mile:

    250

    Monetary Unit:

    Peso

    Languages:

    Spanish

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    0

    Capital City:

    Havana

    Natural Resources:

    nickel, timber

    Major Exports:

    coffee, sugar, tobacco, shellfish

    Major Imports:

    petroleum, chemicals, foodstuffs, machinery

    Form of Government:

    Communist state Dominica

    Country:

    Dominica

    Geographic Region:

    Central America - Caribbean

    Land Area:

    290 sq. miles

    Population:

    65,777

    Population Density per square mile:

    227

    Monetary Unit:

    East Caribbean Dollar

    Languages:

    English, French Patios, Creole

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Anglican, Methodist

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +1

    Capital City:

    Roseau

    Natural Resources:

    timber

    Major Exports:

    bananas, soap, bay oil, oranges, grapefruit

    Major Imports:

    manufactured goods, machinery, chemicals, foodstuffs

    Form of Government:

    Parliamentary Democracy Dominican Republic

    Country:

    Dominican Republic

    Geographic Region:

    Central America - Caribbean

    Land Area:

    18,704 sq. miles

    Population:

    7,998,766

    Population Density per square mile:

    428

    Monetary Unit:

    Peso

    Languages:

    Spanish, English

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +1

    Capital City:

    Santo Domingo

    Natural Resources:

    nickel, bauxite, gold, silver

    Major Exports:

    sugar, coffee, cocoa, gold, silver, meats, fruits

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, petroleum, cotton, chemicals

    Form of Government:

    Republic El Salvador

    Country:

    El Salvador

    Geographic Region:

    Central America - Caribbean

    Land Area:

    8,260 sq. miles

    Population:

    5,752,067

    Population Density per square mile:

    696

    Monetary Unit:

    Colon

    Languages:

    Spanish

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    -1

    Capital City:

    San Salvador

    Natural Resources:

    crude oil, hydroelectric power, geothermal power

    Major Exports:

    coffee, cotton, sugar, shrimp

    Major Imports:

    raw materials, consumer goods, capital goods

    Form of Government:

    Republic Grenada

    Country:

    Grenada

    Geographic Region:

    Central America - Caribbean

    Land Area:

    133 sq. miles

    Population:

    100,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    752

    Monetary Unit:

    East Caribbean Dollar

    Languages:

    English, French Patois

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Anglican

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +1

    Capital City:

    Saint George's

    Natural Resources:

    timber, tropical fruit, deep-water harbors

    Major Exports:

    nutmeg, cocoa beans, bananas, textiles

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, machinery, fuel, chemicals, petroleum

    Form of Government:

    Parliamentary Democracy Grenadines (and Saint Vincent)

    Country:

    Grenadines (and Saint Vincent)

    Geographic Region:

    Central America - Caribbean

    Land Area:

    150 sq. miles

    Population:

    114,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    760

    Monetary Unit:

    East Caribbean Dollar

    Languages:

    English, French Patois

    Religions:

    Anglican, Methodist, Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +1

    Capital City:

    Kingstown

    Natural Resources:

    negligible

    Major Exports:

    bananas, eddoes, arrowroot starch, tennis rackets

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, machinery, chemicals, fertilizers, fuels

    Form of Government:

    Constitutional Monarchy Guatemala

    Country:

    Guatemala

    Geographic Region:

    Central America - Caribbean

    Land Area:

    42,042 sq. miles

    Population:

    12,007,580

    Population Density per square mile:

    286

    Monetary Unit:

    Quetzal

    Languages:

    Spanish, Indian Dialects

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Protestant, Mayan

    Time Zone (from EST):

    -1

    Capital City:

    Guatemala City

    Natural Resources:

    nickel, crude oil, rare woods, fish

    Major Exports:

    coffee, bananas, sugar, beef

    Major Imports:

    fuel, petroleum products

    Form of Government:

    Republic Haiti

    Country:

    Haiti

    Geographic Region:

    Central America - Caribbean

    Land Area:

    10,714 sq. miles

    Population:

    6,780,501

    Population Density per square mile:

    633

    Monetary Unit:

    Gourde

    Languages:

    French, Creole

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Baptist, Protestant, Vaudou

    Time Zone (from EST):

    0

    Capital City:

    Port-au-Prince

    Natural Resources:

    negligible

    Major Exports:

    coffee, agricultural products

    Major Imports:

    chemicals, machines, petroleum, foodstuffs

    Form of Government:

    Republic Honduras

    Country:

    Honduras

    Geographic Region:

    Central America - Caribbean

    Land Area:

    43,277 sq. miles

    Population:

    5,861,955

    Population Density per square mile:

    135

    Monetary Unit:

    Lempira

    Languages:

    Spanish, Indian Dialects

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    -1

    Capital City:

    Tegucigalpa

    Natural Resources:

    timber, gold, silver, copper, iron ore

    Major Exports:

    bananas, coffee, lumber, shrimp, minerals

    Major Imports:

    petroleum, manufactured goods, machinery

    Form of Government:

    Republic Jamaica

    Country:

    Jamaica

    Geographic Region:

    Central America - Caribbean

    Land Area:

    4,411 sq. miles

    Population:

    2,634,678

    Population Density per square mile:

    597

    Monetary Unit:

    Jamaican Dollar

    Languages:

    English, Jamaican Creole

    Religions:

    Protestant, Roman Catholic, Rastafarian

    Time Zone (from EST):

    0

    Capital City:

    Kingston

    Natural Resources:

    bauxite, gypsum

    Major Exports:

    alumina bauxite, bananas, sugar

    Major Imports:

    consumer goods, machinery, fuels, foodstuffs

    Form of Government:

    Parliamentary Democracy Nevis/ Saint Kitts

    Country:

    Nevis and Saint Kitts

    Geographic Region:

    Central America - Caribbean

    Land Area:

    100 sq. miles

    Population:

    40,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    400

    Monetary Unit:

    East Caribbean Dollar

    Languages:

    English

    Religions:

    Anglican Communion

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +1

    Capital City:

    Basseterre

    Natural Resources:

    negligible

    Major Exports:

    sugar, postage stamps

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, fuels, machinery, manufactured goods

    Form of Government:

    Parliamentary Monarchy Nicaragua

    Country:

    Nicaragua

    Geographic Region:

    Central America - Caribbean

    Land Area:

    50,180 sq. miles

    Population:

    4,583,379

    Population Density per square mile:

    92

    Monetary Unit:

    Cordoba

    Languages:

    Spanish

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic

    Time Zone (from EST):

    -1

    Capital City:

    Managua

    Natural Resources:

    timber, gold, silver, copper, tungsten, lead, zinc

    Major Exports:

    coffee, cotton, bananas, seafood, sugar, meat, chemicals

    Major Imports:

    machinery, foodstuffs, petroleum

    Form of Government:

    Republic Panama

    Country:

    Panama

    Geographic Region:

    Central America - Caribbean

    Land Area:

    29,761 sq. miles

    Population:

    2,600,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    88

    Monetary Unit:

    Balboa

    Languages:

    Spanish, English

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Protestant

    Time Zone (from EST):

    0

    Capital City:

    Panama City

    Natural Resources:

    copper, shrimp,

    Major Exports:

    bananas, sugar, shrimp, coffee, clothing

    Major Imports:

    machinery, petroleum, chemicals, foodstuffs, manufactured goods

    Form of Government:

    Constitutional Republic Saint Lucia

    Country:

    Saint Lucia

    Geographic Region:

    Central America - Caribbean

    Land Area:

    238 sq. miles

    Population:

    151,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    635

    Monetary Unit:

    East Caribbean Dollar

    Languages:

    English, Patois

    Religions:

    Roman Catholic, Protestant, Anglican

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +1

    Capital City:

    Castries

    Natural Resources:

    geothermal potential, mineral springs, sandy beaches

    Major Exports:

    bananas, cocoa, clothing, coconut oil, fruits

    Major Imports:

    foodstuffs, machinery, petroleum

    Form of Government:

    Parliamentary Democracy Trinidad(and Tobago)

    Country:

    Trinidad (and Tobago)

    Geographic Region:

    Central America - Caribbean

    Land Area:

    1,980 sq. miles

    Population:

    1,300,000

    Population Density per square mile:

    628

    Monetary Unit:

    Trinidad and Tobago Dollar

    Languages:

    English, Hindi, French, Spanish

    Religions:

    Christian, Hindu, Islam

    Time Zone (from EST):

    +1

    Capital City:

    Port of Spain

    Natural Resources:

    petroleum, natural gas, asphalt

    Major Exports:

    steel products, petroleum, petroleum products, sugar, cocoa, coffee, citrus fruits

    Major Imports:

    capital and consumer goods

    Form of Government:

    Parliamentary Democracy PHb"""!"!"""!"!""!"!"""!""!"!""!""!""!"""!"!"""!"!"""""""""!"!"!""!"!""!"!""!""!""!"""!""!"!"""!"""" """"P,)&b" """#32"#32"#3"32"#312"!33"3132"33132"33"!3133"3311312"!31311"#3131"3131"313"#313"#3131131"3133132"33132"#31332"#33"31332"31132"31132"#31132"#313"313"31311132"31313"#31133133"#31132"#3331332"3132"#31311132"3132"31313"#313"3131132"#313"#3131132"332#313"33132#3133"3332#333"3333311332"#333133333"#3133113333"#331313313313"#333133132"#33131331332"33133133"31331313"3133"31313113"3313133"3331333"3331333"331333"313131313"333132"331332"313323132"3332332"31332332"#32313#3132332"#32313"3132332"#32#313"33"332"#3"#313"33"#313"#3"#33"33"#3113"#3"#33"313"#3133"#3"#33"32"3"#32"332"#32"332"#32"332"#3"#3132"3"33"#3"#32"3"#33"32"313"32"#33"32"3"32"#33"3"#32"#3"3132"#32"#32"#3"32"#32"32"#32"#3"3"#3"#3"#313"32"3"32"3132"#33"#332"3"#332"31"3"3132"#33"!"!"#31"132"!""313"!"!"!""!"""!""!"""""PPOPP b"!0"3" 3"3"31"3"#3"!3"31"!31"33"!3131"3"!31"3"!32"3"!3"!32"3"3"!32"31"3"3"!32"!32"3130"3313"3133"!31333#3133332#3313132#3313132#31331323131331330330331333033031313131#31332#31332#31332#3332!33"313"313"330"#332"#3132"!33"33"31"#312"!313"33"#312"!3"3"#312"31"31"!313"33"!3131"#331"313"!331"#332"31"31"31" 313"31"!0"Pb" "!"!"!" """"!" "!!"!"!" "!""""!"" "!""!""!!!"!!"!" "!""""""!"""!"!"!"""!!"""""" """!"!"""""""!" "!"""!!!"" "!"""!!"""""!"!" "!""!"!"" ""!""""""!"!"!"!"!" ""!"!"!""!""!"""!""!"" "!""!""!"""!"!!!"""""""!"""!!"!"" "!"!"!""!!"" "!"!"!""!""!"!"!""!"!"""!"!""!""!"""!"!"!"""!!"!""" ""!"" "!"!""!" """!"!!" "!""!!!" ""!"!""!" ""!""" """""" ""!"!"!" ""!"" """" """""!""!""""!""!""" "!"!"" "!"!"" ""!"""""!""!"!""" "!"!"!"!"!"" "!"!"! "!"!"""!"!" "!""!" """!" "" " "!""""""!"" "!"""!"!""!"""!"! "Mariana Trench

    Location:

    1122' N <1>14236' E

    Depth: meters

    10,924

    Depth: fathoms

    5,973

    Depth: feet

    34,840

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    Tonga Trench

    Location:

    2316' S<1>17444' W

    Depth: meters

    10,800

    Depth: fathoms

    5,906

    Depth: feet

    35,433

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    Philippine Trench

    Location:

    1038' N<1>12636' E

    Depth: meters

    10,057

    Depth: fathoms

    5,499

    Depth: feet

    32,995

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    Kermadec Trench

    Location:

    3153' S<1>17721' W

    Depth: meters

    10,047

    Depth: fathoms

    5,494

    Depth: feet

    32,963

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    Bonin Trench

    Location:

    2430' N <1>14324' E

    Depth: meters

    9,994

    Depth: fathoms

    5,464

    Depth: feet

    32,788

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    Kuril Trench

    Location:

    4415' N<1>15034' E

    Depth: meters

    9,750

    Depth: fathoms

    5,331

    Depth: feet

    31,988

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    Izu Trench

    Location:

    3105' N<1>14210' E

    Depth: meters

    9,695

    Depth: fathoms

    5,301

    Depth: feet

    31,808

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    New Britain Trench

    Location:

    0619' S <1>15345' E

    Depth: meters

    8,940

    Depth: fathoms

    4,888

    Depth: feet

    29,331

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    Yap Trench

    Location:

    0833' N <1>13802' E

    Depth: meters

    8,527

    Depth: fathoms

    4,663

    Depth: feet

    27,976

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    Japan Trench

    Location:

    3608' N<1>14243' E

    Depth: meters

    8,412

    Depth: fathoms

    4,600

    Depth: feet

    27,599

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    Peru-Chile Trench

    Location:

    2318' S <1>7114' W

    Depth: meters

    8,064

    Depth: fathoms

    4,409

    Depth: feet

    26,457

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    Palau Trench

    Location:

    0752' N <1>13456' E

    Depth: meters

    8,054

    Depth: fathoms

    4,404

    Depth: feet

    26,424

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    Aleutian Trench

    Location:

    5051' N <1>17711' E

    Depth: meters

    7,679

    Depth: fathoms

    4,199

    Depth: feet

    25,194

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    New Hebrides Trench

    Location:

    2036' S <1>16837' E

    Depth: meters

    7,570

    Depth: fathoms

    4,139

    Depth: feet

    24,836

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    North Ryukyu Trench

    Location:

    2400' N <1>12648' E

    Depth: meters

    7,181

    Depth: fathoms

    3,927

    Depth: feet

    23,560

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    Mid America Trench

    Location:

    1402' N <1>9339' W

    Depth: meters

    6,662

    Depth: fathoms

    3,643

    Depth: feet

    21,857

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    Puerto Rico Trench

    Location:

    1955' N <1>6527 ' W

    Depth: meters

    8,605

    Depth: fathoms

    4,705

    Depth: feet

    30,246

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    So Sandwich Trench

    Location:

    5542' S<1>2656' E

    Depth: meters

    8,325

    Depth: fathoms

    4,552

    Depth: feet

    27,313

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    Romanche Gap

    Location:

    013' S <1>1826' W

    Depth: meters

    7,728

    Depth: fathoms

    4,226

    Depth: feet

    25,354

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    Cayman Trench

    Location:

    1912' N <1>8000' W

    Depth: meters

    7,535

    Depth: fathoms

    4,120

    Depth: feet

    24,721

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    Brazil Basin

    Location:

    0910' S <1>2302' W

    Depth: meters

    6,119

    Depth: fathoms

    3,346

    Depth: feet

    20,076

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    Java Trench

    Location:

    1019' S <1>10958' E

    Depth: meters

    7,125

    Depth: fathoms

    3,896

    Depth: feet

    23,376

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    Ob Trench

    Location:

    0945' S <1>6718' E

    Depth: meters

    6,874

    Depth: fathoms

    3,759

    Depth: feet

    22,553

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    Damantina Trench

    Location:

    3550' S <1>10514' E

    Depth: meters

    6,602

    Depth: fathoms

    3,610

    Depth: feet

    21,660

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    Vema Trench

    Location:

    0908' S <1>6715' E

    Depth: meters

    6,402

    Depth: fathoms

    3,501

    Depth: feet

    21,004

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    Agulhas Basin

    Location:

    4520' S <1>2650' E

    Depth: meters

    6,195

    Depth: fathoms

    3,387

    Depth: feet

    20,325

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    Eurasia Basin

    Location:

    8223' N <1>1931' E

    Depth: meters

    5,450

    Depth: fathoms

    2,980

    Depth: feet

    17,881

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    Ionian Basin

    Location:

    3632' N <1>2106' E

    Depth: meters

    5,150

    Depth: fathoms

    2,816

    Depth: feet

    16,896

    Click here for information about "0056">Longitude and Latitude

    Pre-Revolutionary War Years

    Seven Year War (1756) - The French & Indian War in America; France loses North American colonies to Britain.

    France Loses Quebec (1759) - France loses Quebec to the British.

    Colonists Prepare for War

    Patrick Henry addresses the Virginia convention and says, "Give me liberty or give me death".

    George Washington is named Commander-in-Chief by the Continental Congress.

    Paul Revere alerts the patriots that the British are on the way to Concord.

    The Revolutionary War is Declared

    Richard Henry Lee (Virginia) asserts that "these united colonies are and of right ought to be a free and independent state."

    Nathan Hale was executed by the British for being a spy.

    July 4, 1776 - The Declaration of Independence was signed.

    George Washington re-crosses the Delaware in Pennsylvania and defeats 1400 Hessians at Trenton, New Jersey.

    The Revolutionary War Years

    1777 - The Articles of the Confederation and Perpetual Union are adopted by the Continental Congress.

    December 17, 1777 - France recognizes the independence of the 13 colonies. One year later, France signs an aid treaty with the U.S.

    September 23, 1779 - John Paul Jones defeats the British in the North Sea.

    1780 - Charleston, South Carolina falls to the British.

    1780 - Benedict Arnold is found to be a traitor and escapes to the British where he is made a brigadier general.

    1781 British General Cornwallis surrenders to French and American forces.

    The Revolutionary War Ends

    November 30, 1782 - The British cabinet agrees to recognize U.S. Independence and a preliminary agreement is signed in France.

    1783 - Britain and U.S. sign a peace treaty.

    1783 - George Washington orders his army disbanded.

    New Government Begins after the Revolutionary War

    1787 - The U.S. Constitution is adopted at the constitutional convention in Philadelphia. George Washington presided.

    March 4, 1789 - The U.S. Constitution is declared in effect.

    1789 - George Washington is chosen as the first President of the United States.

    September 24, 1789 - The Supreme Court is created by the Federal Judiciary Act.

    1791 - The Bill of Rights is implemented.

    Battle of Bennington

    August 16, 1777: Exposed the left flank of General Burgoyne's army.

    American Leader: General John Stark

    Estimated # of Men: 2,600

    British Leader: General Burgoyne

    Estimated # of Men: 1,400

    Battle of Brandywine

    September 11, 1777: Led to the British occupation of Philadelphia.

    American Leader: General Washington

    Estimated # of Men: 11,000

    British Leader: General William Howe & Lord Cornwallis

    Battle of Bunker Hill

    June 17, 1775: British failed to end the American siege on Boston. NOTE: General Putnam is remembered for saying, "Don't shoot until you see the whites of their eyes!"

    American Leader: Colonel William Prescott, General Israel Putnam

    Estimated # of Men: 2,200

    British Leader: General William Howe

    Estimated # of Men: 2,250

    Battle of Camden

    August 16, 1780: American defeat exposed North Carolina to the British.

    American Leader: General Horatio Gates

    Estimated # of Men: 3,000

    British Leader: Lord Rawdon, Lord Cornwallis

    Estimated # of Men: 2,200

    Battle of Concord

    April 19, 1775: Aroused thousands of Massachusetts patriots who followed the British to Boston, then surrounded the city.

    American Leader: American patriots

    Estimated # of Men: 350

    British Leader: Lt. Col. Francis Smith

    Estimated # of Men: 700

    Battle of Cowpens

    January 17, 1781: American victory weakened Cornwallis' ability to overrun North Carolina.

    American Leader: Daniel Morgan

    Estimated # of Men: 1,000

    British Leader: Banastre Tarleton

    Estimated # of Men: 1,100

    Battle of Freeman's Farm

    October 7, 1777: American victory led to France entering the war as an ally of America.

    American Leader: General Horatio Gates

    Estimated # of Men: 7,000

    British Leader: General John Burgoyne

    Estimated # of Men: 2,100

    Battle of Germantown

    October 4, 1777: British victory allowed Howe to retain occupation of Philadelphia.

    American Leader: General Washington

    Estimated # of Men: 11,000

    British Leader: General William Howe

    Estimated # of Men: 9,000

    Battle of Guilford

    March 15, 1781: British victory but heavy losses forced Cornwallis to move to Yorktown.

    American Leader: Nathanael Green

    Estimated # of Men: 4,500

    British Leader: Lord Cornwallis

    Estimated # of Men: 2,400

    Battle of Kings Mountain

    October 7, 1780: American victory required Lord Cornwallis to retreat to Camden, South Carolina and assume a defensive strategy.

    Estimated # of Men: 900

    British Leader: Major Patrick Fergusan

    Estimated # of Men: 1,100

    Battle of Lexington

    April 19, 1775: British victory.

    American Leader: Captain Jonas Parker

    Estimated # of Men: 70

    British Leader: Lt. Col. Francis Smith, Major John Pitcairn

    Estimated # of Men: 700

    Battle of Long Island

    August 27-28, 1776: British victory forced Washington to retreat from New York City and opened Manhattan to an easy British invasion.

    American Leader: General Washington

    Estimated # of Men: 19,000

    British Leader: General William Howe

    Estimated # of Men: 32,000

    Battle of Manmouth

    June 28, 1778: General Henry Clinton was able to continue his retreat to New York to reinforce British forces.

    American Leader: General Charles Lee

    Estimated # of Men: 6,000

    British Leader: General Henry Clinton

    Estimated # of Men: 10,000

    Battle of Oriskany

    August 6, 1777: Allowed the American troops under siege at Ft. Stanwix to hold on until reinforcements arrived.

    American Leader: General Nicholas Herkimer

    Estimated # of Men: 800

    British Leader: Joseph Brant

    Estimated # of Men: 400

    Battle of Quebec

    December 30, 1775: Opened New York up to British invasion.

    American Leader: Brig. General Richard Montgomery

    Estimated # of Men: 1,000

    British Leader: Guy Carleton

    Estimated # of Men: 1,200

    Battle of Savannah

    October 9, 1799: British victory allowed Clinton to attack South Carolina in force.

    American Leader: Admiral Jean d'Estaing, General Benjamin Lincoln

    Estimated # of Men: 5,000

    British Leader: General Augustine Prevost

    Estimated # of Men: 2,400

    Battle of Trenton

    December 26, 1776: Morale booster for the Americans and led to recovering New Jersey.

    American Leader: General Washington

    Estimated # of Men: 2,400

    British Leader: Col. Johann Rall

    Estimated # of Men: 1,500

    Battle of Vincennes

    February 23-24, 1779: Put Clark in position of control of most of the old Northwest.

    American Leader: George Rogers Clark

    Estimated # of Men: 130

    British Leader: Henry Hamilton

    Estimated # of Men: 100

    Battle of Yorktown

    September 28-October 19, 1781: Resulted in the surrender of the British army and an end of the war on the continent.

    American Leader: General Washington, Admiral de Grasse (French)

    Estimated # of Men: 17,000

    British Leader: Lord Cornwallis

    Estimated # of Men: 7,000

    Battle of Antietam

    September 17-18, 1862: Invasion of Union fails. Confederacy refuses recognition by Europe. Emancipation Proclamation issued.

    Union Leader: George McClellan

    Estimated # of Men: 70,000

    Confederate Leader: Robert E. Lee

    Estimated # of Men: 40,000

    Battle of Appomattox

    April 9, 1865: Union victory, Lee surrenders to Grant. The war is over.

    Union Leader: Ulysses S. Grant

    Estimated # of Men: 90,000

    Confederate Leader: Robert E. Lee

    Estimated # of Men: 25,000

    Battle of Atlanta

    September 2, 1864: Union victory securing the starting point of Shermans March to the Sea.

    Union Leader: William Sherman

    Estimated # of Men: 60,000

    Confederate Leader: John Hood

    Estimated # of Men: 60,000

    Battle of Bentonville

    March 19-21, 1865: Union win secures Goldsboro, the last southern stronghold outside of Virginia.

    Union Leader: William Sherman

    Estimated # of Men: 90,000

    Confederate Leader: Joseph Johnston

    Estimated # of Men: 25,000

    Battle of Bull Run

    August 29-30, 1862: This Union loss encourages Robert E. Lee to attack the Northern armies.

    Union Leader: John Pope

    Estimated # of Men: 40,000

    Confederate Leader: Stonewall Jackson

    Estimated # of Men: 49,000

    Battle of Cedar Creek

    October 19, 1864: Union win that clears the Shenandoah Valley of Confederate troops.

    Union Leader: Philip Sheridan

    Estimated # of Men: 31,000

    Confederate Leader: Jubal Early

    Estimated # of Men: 18,000

    Battle of Cedar Mountain

    August 9, 1862: Confederates put down first Union movement toward Richmond.

    Union Leader: Nathaniel Banks

    Estimated # of Men: 8,000

    Confederate Leader: Stonewall Jackson

    Estimated # of Men: 24,000

    Battle of Chancellorsville

    May 5-6, 1864: Considered a draw. Heavy losses received by both sides.

    Union Leader: Ulysses S. Grant

    Estimated # of Men: 100,000

    Confederate Leader: Robert E. Lee

    Estimated # of Men: 60,000

    Battle of Chattanooga,TN

    November 23-25, 1863: Union win clears the way for Union invasion of Georgia.

    Union Leader: Ulysses S. Grant

    Estimated # of Men: 56,000

    Confederate Leader: Braxton Bragg

    Estimated # of Men: 45,000

    Battle of Cherbourg

    June 19, 1864 (naval battle): Sinking of the Confederate destroyer "Alabama" by the "Kearsarge".

    Union Leader: John Winslow

    Estimated # of Men: 300

    Confederate Leader: Raphael Semmes

    Estimated # of Men: 250

    Battle of Chickamauga,GA

    June 19, 1864 (naval battle): Confederate win that temporarily halts the Confederate retreat.

    Union Leader: William Rosecrans

    Estimated # of Men: 58,000

    Confederate Leader: Braxton Bragg

    Estimated # of Men: 66,000

    Battle of Columbia,SC

    February 17, 1865: Union wins; Sherman begins attack on Carolinas in attempt to surround Robert E. Lee at Richmond.

    Union Leader: William Sherman

    Estimated # of Men: 55,000

    Confederate Leader: Joseph Johnston

    Estimated # of Men: 25,000

    Battle of Five Forks,VA

    April 1, 1865: Union win forces Robert E. Lee to evacuate Petersburg and Richmond.

    Union Leader: Philip Sheridan

    Estimated # of Men: 25,000

    Confederate Leader: George Pickett

    Estimated # of Men: 20,000

    Battle of Fort Donelson,TN

    February 16, 1862: Union forces capture an important position in Tennessee.

    Union Leader: Ulysses S. Grant

    Estimated # of Men: 27,000

    Confederate Leader: Simon Buckner

    Estimated # of Men: 17,000

    Battle of Fort Fisher,NC

    January 15, 1865 (naval battle): Last Confederate port lost to Union forces.

    Union Leader: David D. Porter

    Estimated # of Men: 10,000

    Confederate Leader: William Lamb

    Estimated # of Men: 1,400

    Battle of Fort Henry,TN

    February 6, 1862 (naval battle): First Union naval victory. Confederates retreat to Fort Donelson.

    Union Leader: Andrew Foote

    Estimated # of Men: 2,000

    Confederate Leader: Lloyd Tilghman

    Estimated # of Men: 3,000

    Battle of Fort Sumter,SC

    April 12-13, 1861: Confederate army wins. Diplomatic negotiations fail. First shots of war.

    Union Leader: Robert Anderson

    Estimated # of Men: 80

    Confederate Leader: Pierre Beauregard

    Estimated # of Men: 1,000

    Battle of Fredericksburg,VA

    December 13, 1862: Confederate suicidal attack causes Burnside's removal.

    Union Leader: Ambrose Burnside

    Estimated # of Men: 113,000

    Confederate Leader: Robert E. Lee

    Estimated # of Men: 75,000

    Battle of Gettysburg,PA

    July 1-4, 1863: Union wins, Lee's invasion of north fails.

    Union Leader: George Meade

    Estimated # of Men: 93,000

    Confederate Leader: Robert E. Lee

    Estimated # of Men: 70,000

    Battle of Hampton Rds,VA

    March 9, 1862 (naval battle): Famous "Monitor-Merrmac" battle. Confederate attempt to destroy blockade fails.

    Union Leader: John L. Worden

    Estimated # of Men: 250

    Confederate Leader: Franklin Buchanan

    Estimated # of Men: 300

    Battle of Mobile,AL

    August 5, 1864 (naval battle): Union win barred Mobile, Alabama from approaching the sea.

    Union Leader: David Farragut

    Estimated # of Men: 3000

    Confederate Leader: Franklin Buchanan

    Estimated # of Men: 5000

    Battle of Murfreesboro,TN

    December 31 1862-January 2, 1863: Strategic win for Union forces.

    Union Leader: William Rosecrans

    Estimated # of Men: 41,000

    Confederate Leader: Braxton Bragg

    Estimated # of Men: 32,000

    Battle of Nashville,TN

    December 15-16, 1864: This Union win allowed Sherman to continue his march toward sea.

    Union Leader: George Thomas

    Estimated # of Men: 40,000

    Confederate Leader: John Hood

    Estimated # of Men: 23,000

    Battle of New Orleans,LA

    April 25, 1862 (naval battle): Important gulf port captured by Union.

    Union Leader: David Farragut

    Estimated # of Men: 3,000

    Confederate Leader: John K. Mitchell

    Estimated # of Men: 10,000

    Battle of Petersburg,VA

    April 2, 1865: Union win; Grant moves in on evacuated city after ten month seige.

    Union Leader: Ulysses S. Grant

    Estimated # of Men: 115,000

    Confederate Leader: Robert E. Lee

    Estimated # of Men: 54,000

    Battle-Port Hudson,LA

    July 8, 1863: Union win ended war in the West. Texas, Arkansas, and Louisiana are cut off from the Confederacy.

    Union Leader: Nataniel Banks

    Estimated # of Men: 20,000

    Confederate Leader: John Breckinridge

    Estimated # of Men: 16,000

    Battle of Richmond,VA

    April 3, 1865: Confederate capital falls without a battle.

    Union Leader: Ulysses S. Grant

    Estimated # of Men: 60,000

    Confederate Leader: Robert E. Lee

    Estimated # of Men: 30,000

    Battle of Savannah,GA

    December 22, 1864: Union wins; end of Sherman's march to the sea. The lower south is removed from the war.

    Union Leader: William Sherman

    Estimated # of Men: 58,000

    Confederate Leader: Joseph Johnston

    Estimated # of Men: 30,000

    Battle of Shiloh,TN

    April 6-7, 1862: Union obtains control of Western Tennessee.

    Union Leader: Ulysses S. Grant

    Estimated # of Men: 62,000

    Confederate Leader: Albert Johnston

    Estimated # of Men: 40,000

    Battle of Spotsylvania,VA

    May 8-12, 1864: Confederate victory; Grant is defeated in a drive toward Richmond.

    Union Leader: Ulysses S. Grant

    Estimated # of Men: 80,000

    Confederate Leader: Robert E. Lee

    Estimated # of Men: 50,000

    Battle of Vicksburg,MS

    July 4, 1863: Union gains control of Mississippi region after six-week bombardment.

    Union Leader: Ulysses S. Grant

    Estimated # of Men: 45,000

    Confederate Leader: John Pemberton

    Estimated # of Men: 30,000

    Battle of Yorktown,VA

    May 4, 1862: Union wins; Confederate troops retreat toward Richmond.

    Union Leader: George McClellan

    Estimated # of Men: 95,000

    Confederate Leader: Joseph Johnston

    Estimated # of Men: 55,000

    Poor Richard's Almanac

    A collection of wisdoms and proverbs written by Benjamin Franklin. Some of his wisdoms included sayings such as "A penny saved is a penny earned."

    Quebec Act

    1774, Parliament extended the territory of Quebec to include land already claimed by several American colonies.

    Reconstruction

    A period of twelve years after the Civil War when the national focus was on reuniting the states and rebuilding the South. The reconstruction was a two-stage process-- 1865-1866 controlled by the President, and 1866-1877, called the Radical Reconstruction, controlled by Congress.

    Robber Baron

    The name given to wealthy businessmen in the late 1800's who drove small businesses out of business.

    Rough Riders

    The U.S cavalry troop headed by Theodore Roosevelt during the War of 1898--the Spanish-American War. The Rough Riders won the Battle of San Juan Hill.

    Santa Fe Trail

    An 800 mile overland route to the West that ran from Independence, Missouri to Santa Fe, New Mexico.

    Scalawag

    A term coined by Southern Democrats to define Southern whites who supported making former slaves citizens.

    Seven Year War

    1756, the French and Indian War in America; France loses North American colonies to Britain.

    Sharecropper

    The term given to those, including former slaves, who lived and farmed on land owned by someone else but were given back a share of what they produced.

    Stamp Act

    Passed November 1, 1765, this act required stamps to be purchased and placed on papers such as legal documents, newspapers, licenses, etc. The act was repealed in March of 1776.

    Suffrage

    The right to vote. The right for women to vote was granted in 1920 with the 19th Amendment. This amendment was known as the Susan B. Anthony Amendment in honor of her efforts to attain greater women's rights and suffrage.

    Taxation without Representation

    An injustice the colonists expressed with the British Government. British rule insisted that no colonist could be elected to the British Parliament in London even though the colonists were required to pay many taxes.

    Teapot Dome Scandal

    A scandal that rocked the Harding administration when it was discovered that a member of Hardings cabinet had leased federal land with oil reserves to private companies who then made large profits.

    Tennessee Valley Authority

    Created under the New Deal, this U.S. government agency was established in 1933 to control floods, improve navigation, improve the living standards of farmers, and produce electrical power along the Tennessee River and its tributaries.

    Trail of Tears

    Under President Andrew Jackson, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, which gave the government the legal right to relocate Native Americans to reservations. In the fall of 1838, the government began relocating the Cherokee people from Georgia 800 miles to reservations in Oklahoma. En route, 2000 Cherokee Indians died, one-fourth of their nation, due to disease and extreme cold. The journey became known as the Trail of Tears.

    Triple Alliance

    World War I. alliance that included Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.

    Triple Entente

    World War I. alliance that included France, Russia, and Great Britain.

    U.S. Battleship Maine

    U.S. Naval Ship visiting Cuba during Cuba's fight with Spain to gain independence. Mysteriously destroyed and blamed on the Spanish government, "Remember the Maine" was the battle cry that led support for the Spanish-American War.

    U-boat

    German submarine

    Underground Railroad

    Not really a railroad, the "Underground Railroad" was a system of shelters and homes networked together to form a means of helping slaves escape from the South into free states or Canada. Code words like "station" and "conductor" were used to indicate a hiding place and a person who guided the runaway slaves to freedom.

    Watergate

    The political scandal that rocked the Nixon Presidency and forced him to resign. A break-in of the democratic national party headquarters and subsequent cover up reached all the way up to Nixon and his top aides.

    Western Front

    The battle-line that divided the Allied and Central Powers during World War I. This battle-line was 450 miles long and ran through parts of Belgium and France to Switzerland.

    Whitewater

    The investigation into U.S. President Clintons finances in Arkansas that led to the Monica Lewinsky scandal in which President Clinton became the second president impeached.

    Works Progress Administration (WPA)

    Created by the New Deal in 1935. Franklin Delano Roosevelts response to the Great Depression was to propose greater aid to the underprivileged and extensive reforms. Congress created the Works Progress Administration which replaced direct relief with work relief; between 1935 and 1941 the WPA employed an annual average of 2,100,000 workers, including artists and writers, who built or improved schools, hospitals, airports, and other facilities by the tens of thousands.

    World War I (1914-1918)

    During this global conflict, the "Allies" fought against the Central "Axis" Powers. The Allies included: Belgium, Great Britain, France, Italy (from 1915), Japan, most of North Africa, Portugal, Romania, Russia, and the United States (from 1917). The Central Powers included: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire (Turkey). See "007d">World War I

    World War II (1939-1945)

    During this conflict the "Allies" fought against the "Axis" powers. The Allies included: Great Britain (with its empire including Canada and India), China, France, Soviet Union (from 1941), and the United States (from 1941). The Axis powers included: Germany, Italy, Japan, and the Soviet Union (until 1941). See "007e">World War II.

    Jefferson, Thomas

    1743-1826<1>He was the third President of the United States and the author of the Declaration of Independence.

    Joan of Arc

    1412 - 1431<1>French national heroine, known as the Maid of Orleans, who fought for France under Charles VII against the English. She was captured and found guilty of witchcraft and heresy and was burned at the stake on May 30, 1431. In 1920, after a review of her case by church authorities, Joan of Arc was canonized a saint.

    John, King of England

    1167 - 1216<1>King of England from 1199 to 1216 that is remembered as the King who was forced to sign the Magna Carta limiting royal power.

    Johnson, Lyndon Baines

    1908 - 1973<1>He was the thirty-sixth President of the United States and assumed office on November 22, 1963, upon the assassination of President John F. Kennedy.

    Josephine

    1763 - 1814<1>Empress of France until 1809 and was Napoleon's first wife. Her full name was Marie Josephe Rose, and she was married and widowed to army officer Viscount Alexandre de Beauharnais. She married Napoleon on March 9, 1796 and died at Malmaison on May 29, 1814.

    Khan, Genghis

    1162 - 1227<1>He was the Proclaimed ruler of the United Mongol and Tartar Tribes and is noted for invading China and capturing Peking (1214), conquering Persia (1218) and invasion of Russia (1223). His grandson, Kublia Khan, founded the Mongol Dynasty in China.

    Khan, Kublai

    1216 - 1294<1>Ruler of the Mongols and grandson of Genghis Khan. He founded the Mongol Dynasty in China. Venetian traveler Marco Polo spent several years at the court of Kublai Khan.

    Kennedy, John Fitzgerald

    1917 - 1963<1>Thirty-fifth President of the United States and the youngest person to be elected to that office. He was assassinated on November 22, 1963 in Dallas, Texas. President Kennedy was the seventh president to die in office and the fourth to have been assassinated.

    Kennedy, Robert Francis

    1925 - 1968<1>Served as US Attorney General from 1961 to 1964, and was a United States Senator and brother of President John F. Kennedy. He announced candidacy for nomination for president by the Democratic Party against President Johnson and was assassinated on June 5, 1968, dying on June 6.

    Key, Francis Scott

    1779 - 1843<1>American lawyer who composed the "Star-Spangled Banner" during the British attack of Fort McHenry in the War of 1812.

    Khrushchev, Nikita Sergeyevich

    1894 - 1971<1>Soviet political leader from 1955 - 1964 whose objective (in his own words) in his economic reforms was "to overtake and outstrip" the West in terms of living standards. He made an unprecedented trip to the US in 1959. On October 15, 1964 it was decided that Khrushchev would no longer be head of the government or party of the Soviet Union.

    King, Martin Luther, Jr.

    1929 - 1968<1>Baptist Minister and leader in the American Negro Civil Rights Movement, who, in 1964 won the Nobel Prize for his non-violence and passive resistance methods in his movement. He was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee on April 4, 1968.

    Kissinger, Henry

    1923 -<1>American statesman and Secretary of State during both the Nixon and Ford Administrations. He was born in Furth, Germany, his family moved to this country in 1938. He received the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize for his peace efforts in Vietnam, and he wrote "White House Years."

    Lenin, Nikolai

    1870 - 1924<1>His real name was Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov and he was a Russian revolutionary leader and statesman. As Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars, Lenin laid the foundation for the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

    Lincoln, Abraham

    1809 - 1865<1>Sixteenth President of the United States who was President during the US Civil War and was known as the "savior of the union and emancipator of the slaves." Lincoln was assassinated on April 14, 1865 at Ford's Theater, Washington, DC, and he died the next day. He was the first president to be assassinated.

    Mckinley, William

    1843 - 1901<1>Twenty-fifth President of the United States and the third to have been assassinated in office. He was President during the Spanish-American War that resulted in the US acquisition of the Philippines and other islands.

    Mandela, Nelson Rolihlahla

    1918 -<1>South African political activist who helped establish the Youth League of the African National Congress (ANC) in 1944. He was indicted 1956 for treason and found guilty after a five-year trial. In 1961 he formed Umkhonto We Sizwe (Spear of the Nation) and in 1963 he was convicted of conspiracy to overthrow the government and sentenced to life in prison. Mandela was released from prison in 1988.

    Marx, Karl

    1818 - 1883<1>Worked with German socialist Friedrich Engels on a program known as the Communist Manifesto and is known as the founder of modern socialism. He also published his views on political economy in Das Kapital (Capital).

    Maximilian

    1832 - 1867<1>Austrian statesman and military leader who was crowned Emperor of Mexico on June 12, 1864. He lost support after French troops were withdrawn and was executed by command of Juarez on June 19, 1867.

    Meir, Golda

    1898 - 1978<1>Israel's first woman Prime Minister (1969 to 1974). She was born in Kiev, Ukraine on May 3, 1898, and moved with her family to Milwaukee, Wisconsin when she was eight, then to Israel in 1921. She is one of the 25 signers of Israel's Declaration of Independence (May 14, 1948). She died in Jerusalem December 8, 1978.

    Mussolini, Benito

    1883 - 1945<1>Italian military and political leader who created Fascism and became Dictator of Italy. He sided with Germany as one of the Axis Powers in World War II and was forced to resign from office July 25, 1943. Mussolini was executed by Italian partisans on April 28, 1945.

    Nation, Carry

    1846 - 1911<1>American temperance activist who was a zealous crusader against alcoholic drinks and was often jailed for wrecking saloons with her hatchet.

    Nebuchadnezzar I

    1146 - 1123 BC<1>Third ruler of the Second Isin Dynasty who completely freed the country of Babylonia from Elamite control.

    Nebuchadnezzar II

    604 - 562 BC<1>King of Chaldean or the new Babylonion Empire who is referenced in the Old Testament for his siege of Jerusalem in 586 BC that marked the end of the Hebrew kingdom and the start of Babylonian captivity.

    Nehru, Jawaharlal

    1889 - 1964<1>First Prime Minister of India who was one of the primary aides to Mohandas K. Gandhi in the fight for India's independence. He is remembered as the architect of modern India.

    Nero, Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus

    37 - 68 A.D.<1>Became Roman Emperor in 54 AD after Claudius was poisoned by Agrippina, Nero's mother. Nero was concerned only with his own power and pleasure, and he was blamed for the fire that destroyed most of Rome in 64 AD. Story has it that he "fiddled while Rome burned." Nero committed suicide after a revolt put him out of power.

    O'connor, Sandra Day

    1930 -<1>First woman to serve on the US Supreme Court. She was born in El Paso, Texas on March 26, 1930 and received her law degrees from Stanford University (1950 and 1952). She was nominated by President Reagan on July 7, 1981 for appointment to the Supreme Court and was sworn into office September 25, 1981.

    Otto I

    912 - 973<1>Called Otto the Great, he was King of Germany from 936 to 973AD and was the first ruling emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.

    Penn, William

    1644 - 1718<1>Founder of the state of Pennsylvania. While in prison in the Tower of London he wrote his famous "No Cross, No Crown."

    Peter I

    1672 - 1725<1>Russian Czar, known as Peter the Great, who initiated the modernization programs that marked Russia's rise to power. In 1709 he destroyed the Swedish army at Poltava and gained most of the Baltic Provinces from Sweden.

    Polk, James Knox

    1795 - 1849<1>Eleventh President of the United States who, during his administration, expanded the United States from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean.

    Rasputin, Grigori Efimovich

    1871? - 1916<1>Russian monk who convinced both Czarina Alexandra and the Czar of Russia that he possessed mystic healing powers.

    Revere, Paul

    1735 - 1818<1>American Patriot remembered for his "midnight ride" on April 18, 1775, alerting the Minutemen in the Boston area that the British were coming.

    Robespierre, Maximilien Francois Marie Isadore De

    1758 - 1794<1>Robespierre was a leader during the French Revolution and was appointed as head of the Committee of Public Safety in 1794 during the "reign of terror". He called the reign of terror a "reign of virtue." Between July 1794 and his death, the committee had executed nearly 1,300 people by use of the guillotine. He himself was executed shortly after the reign of terror ended.

    Rom'ulus And Re'mus

    Mythical founders of Rome who were twin brothers that were the sons of the god Mars and Rhea Silvia, daughter of Numitor King of Alba.

    Roosevelt, Franklin Delano

    1882 - 1945<1>Thirty-second President of the United States who was Commander in Chief of the US during World War II. He initiated reform measures in the US that included the New Deal and was the first person to be elected to a third and fourth term in office. He died before completing his fourth term on April 12, 1945.

    Roosevelt, Theodore

    1858 - 1919<1>Twenty-sixth President of the United States, he attended Harvard University and graduated with honors. He was known as a rugged individualist, sportsman, hunter, and naturalist and is remembered for his motto, "speak softly and carry a big stick."

    Ross, Betsy

    1752 - 1836<1>She is recognized for having made the first American flag.

    Famous Government and World Leaders (page 3)

    "0ec1">Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez De

    "0ec2">Sargon I

    "0ec3">Seward, William Henry

    "0ec4">Stalin, Joseph

    "0ec5">Thatcher, Margaret

    "0ec6">Theodoric the Great

    "0ec7">Trotsky, Leon

    "0ec8">Truman, Harry S.

    "0ec9">Turner, Nat

    "0eca">Victoria, Queen

    "0ecb">Washington, George

    "0ecc">Wilson, (Thomas) Woodrow

    "00a4">Back to page 1

    "0501">Back to page 2

    Addends

    See "0b21">Summands.

    Average (Mean)

    Given a list of numbers, the average of the list is defined as

    "0ecd"

    EXAMPLE: The average of the list 24, 16, 36, 8, 20, 6 is

    "0ece"

    Cancel

    1. To delete a pair of identical "0b10">factors which appear in a"07be"> rational expression (fraction), one in the "07c4">numerator (top) and the other in the "07c1">denominator (bottom), resulting in an "0b3e">equivalent rational expression.

    EXAMPLE: In the fraction

    "0ecf"

    you can cancel a factor of 3 from the top and bottom resulting in the equivalent fraction.

    "0ed0"

    EXAMPLE: In the fraction

    "0ed1"

    you may NOT cancel the x from the top and bottom. This is due to the fact that x is not a factor of the numerator (top).

    2. To delete a pair of identical nonzero factors which appear on either side of an equal sign, resulting in an equivalent equation. Note that you may not cancel a factor of zero from either side of an equation.

    EXAMPLE: In the equation 3x = 15, you can cancel a factor of 3 from either side of the equation, resulting in the equivalent equation x = 5.

    "0ed2"

    3. To delete a pair of identical terms which appear on either side of an equation symbol, resulting in an equivalent equation.

    EXAMPLE: In the equation 3x + 3 = 4y + 3 you can cancel the term 3 from either side of the equation, resulting in the equivalent equation 3x = 4y.

    "0ed3"

    Common Factors

    Given a list of numbers, any number that is a "0b10">factor of every number in the list is a common factor of the numbers in the list. (Note: See "0604">Finding the Greatest Common Factor.)

    EXAMPLE: The number 2 is a common factor of 6 and 20 because 2 is a factor of 6 and 2 is a factor of 20.

    Composite Numbers

    A composite number is any "0b17">natural number that is not equal to 1 and is not "0b1a">prime. That is, a composite number is any natural number that is a "0b1b">product of two or more prime numbers.

    EXAMPLE: The following numbers are composite numbers. 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, ...

    Counting Numbers (Natural Numbers)

    See "0b17">Natural Numbers.

    Difference

    The difference between two expressions is the result of subtracting the two expressions.

    Dividend

    In a "0b1c">quotient (division problem), the dividend is the number to the left of the division symbol (or in the numerator if the quotient is written as a fraction).

    EXAMPLE: In the quotient 5 3 or 5/3 the dividend is the number 5.

    Divisor

    In a "0b1c">quotient (division problem), the divisor is the number to the right of the division symbol (or in the denominator if the quotient is written as a fraction).

    EXAMPLE: In the quotient 5 3 or 5/3 the divisor is the number 3.

    Element

    See "0b13">Member.

    Even Numbers

    An even number is an "07c2">integer that can be evenly divided by 2. In other words, an even number is an integer multiple of 2.

    EXAMPLE: The following numbers are even numbers. ..., -6, -4, -2, 0, 2, 4, 6, ...

    Exponent

    The exponent in an "0baf">exponential expression is the power.

    EXAMPLE: In the expression x4 the exponent is the number 4.

    Factor

    1. The factors of an expression are the expressions which multiply together to form the original expression.

    EXAMPLE: The factors of the number 28 are 1, 2, 4, 7, 14, and 28.

    EXAMPLE: The factors of the expression 3x (x - 4) are 1, 3, x, (x - 4), 3x, 3(x - 4), x (x - 4) and 3x (x - 4).

    2. The factors in a multiplication problem are the numbers that are to be multiplied.

    Lowest Term (Fraction)

    A "07c0">fraction is in lowest terms when its "07c4">numerator (top) and "07c1">denominator (bottom) can not be divided evenly by the same "0b22">whole number with the exception of 1.

    EXAMPLE: The fraction 3/5 is in lowest terms.

    EXAMPLE: The fraction 3/6 is not in lowest terms because the top and bottom can be divided evenly by 3.

    Mean

    See "0b05">Average.

    Member

    A member of a "0b1e">set is any object which makes up the set.

    Minuend

    In a subtraction problem, the minuend is the expression to the left of the subtraction symbol.

    EXAMPLE: In the subtraction problem 3 - 5, the minuend is 3.

    Multiplicand

    In a multiplication problem, the multiplicand is the number to the left of the multiplication sign.

    EXAMPLE: In the multiplication problem 3 5, the multiplicand is 3.

    Multiplier

    In a multiplication problem, the multiplier is the number to the right of the multiplication sign.

    EXAMPLE: In the multiplication problem 3 5, the multiplier is 5.

    Natural Number

    A natural number is a positive "07c2">integer. That is, the set of natural numbers is the infinite set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,...}. Natural numbers are also called counting numbers. The set of natural numbers is denoted by the symbol N.

    Odd Numbers

    An odd number is any "07c2">integer that can not be evenly divided by 2. In other words, an odd number is any integer that is not an "0b0e">even number.

    EXAMPLE: The following numbers are odd numbers. ..., -7, -5, -3, -1, 1, 3, 5, 7, ...

    Powers

    See "00ba">Raising Numbers to Powers.

    Prime Numbers

    A prime number is a natural number that is not equal to 1 and that can be divided by exactly two natural numbers, 1 and itself.

    EXAMPLE: See "00e3">Prime Numbers between 1 and 1000.

    Product A product is the result of multiplying two expressions. <1>EXAMPLE: The expressions 3 5, 3x, xy, (x+17) (x-21) are products.See "0b9a">cartesian product. Quotient

    The result of dividing two expressions.

    EXAMPLE: The following expressions are quotients.

    "0ed4"

    Remainder (Difference)

    1. In a subtraction problem, the remainder is the answer.

    2. In a division problem, the remainder is the final undivided part after division.

    EXAMPLE: In the following division problem

    "0ed5"

    the remainder is 4.

    Set

    A set is a collection of objects.

    Subsets

    Given two "0b1e">sets, S and T, we say that T is a subset of S (or T is contained in S) if every "0b13">member of T is also a member of S.

    EXAMPLE: The set {1,2,3} is a subset of the set {1,2,3,4,5}.

    EXAMPLE: The set {2,4,6} is not a subset of the set {1,2,3,4,5} because the number 6 is a member of the first set and is not a member of the second set.

    Subtrahend

    In a subtraction problem, the subtrahend is the expression to the right of the subtraction symbol.

    EXAMPLE: In the subtraction problem 3 - 5, the subtrahend is 5.

    Summands

    In an addition problem, the summands are the numbers being added.

    Whole Number

    A whole number is a "0bc2">nonnegative "07c2">integer. That is, the set of whole numbers is the infinite set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4,...}.

                               X              P  "  "   """!"!  P8    PH         P      p(        H       @h      @  `(      H(       P(      Ph               (  X  X        pp                  (8   Equivalent

    1. Two "0b93">algebraic expressions are equivalent if the "0be5">value of the first expression is equal to the value of the second expression for each allowable replacement of the "0be6">variables in those expressions.

    EXAMPLE: The expressions 3x + 5x - 4 and 8x - 4 are equivalent because, for every "0688">real number value of x, the expressions have the same value.

    EXAMPLE: The expressions are 3x + 5x - 4 and 3x + 5(x - 4) are not equivalent. If you substitute the value x = 0 into the first expression you get the value 3(0) + 5(0) - 4 = 4, and if you substitute the value x = 0 into the second expression you get the value 3(0) + 5(0 - 4) = -20. These values are not the same.

    2. Two "0bc7">open sentences are equivalent if they have the same "0bde">solution set.

    EXAMPLE: The sentences 3x - 5 = 4 and 3x = 9 are equivalent because they have the same solution set (x = 3).

    EXAMPLE: The sentences 3x + 9 = 0 and 3x = 9 are not equivalent because the solution set for the first is (x = -3) and the solution set for the second is (x = 3).

    `P        H(  H8  0(H(((0(hP         X(   @(   8H 8( (hp0(h((8(0(H(H( ( H(  0(H(((0(hP         X(   ( 0P0p0p0P0p0phPP0PP    0P  0p  P@(8H0 p H """"!" """" !"!" !""!"!""""!""""!""!"""""!""!"!"!""" "!"!"!"""H !""!""!"!"!"!!"!!"!"!!"!"!!"!!!""!""!!""""!"""" """"!"""" ""H 0 @( 8H0   H """"""!!"" ""! """"!"""" """!""""""!""!""!""""!"""" """!""@ !"!"!"" " !""!!"!!!"""!" "! ""!" ! "!""!"""!!""""""!!"""" """" """" """" ""p 0PhPPP`P0p 0P0p0pXP0PPxP  Px  0P 0p  0P P       0P 0p  X     X!   $Additive Identity

    The "0688">real number 0 is called the additive identity because 0 + X = X = X + 0 for any real number X.

    Additive Inverse

    The additive inverse of a "0688">real number X is the real number -X which has the same decimal expansion as X and has the opposite sign as X. On the number line, -X is directly opposite the number X relative to the number 0. The number -X is called the additive inverse of X because X + (-X) = 0 = (-X) + X. Note that, if X is negative, then -X is positive.

    EXAMPLE: -(-5) = 5

    Algebraic Expression

    An algebraic expression is a combination of "0bc4">numerals, "0bcf">placeholders and "0bca">operational symbols which may collectively represent more than one number.

    EXAMPLE: 3x - 5 is an algebraic expression.

    Axiom

    An axiom is a statement which is assumed to be true and is accepted without proof.

    Axis

    An axis is a copy of the "0bc3">number line used to define a "071c">coordinate plane. The horizontal copy of the number line is usually referred to as the x-axis. The vertical copy of the number line is usually referred to as the y-axis.

    Base

    The base of an "0baf">exponential expression (power) is the expression which is raised to a power.

    EXAMPLE: In the exponential expression x4 the base is x.

    Between

    A "0688">real number x is between two real numbers A and B if x is both "0bb2">greater than A and "0bbb">less than B. In other words, on the "0bc3">number line, the number x appears to the right of the number A and to the left of the number B. We express this by writing A < x < B.

    EXAMPLE: The number 5.1 is between the numbers 5 and 6. That is, 5 < 5.1 < 6.

    EXAMPLE: The number is between the numbers 3 and 4. That is, 3 < < 4. (Note: See "0ed6">Pi.)

    EXAMPLE: The number -2 is between the numbers -3 and -1.5. That is, -3 < -2 < -1.5.

    The density property of the "072a">rational numbers says that if A < B, then there is a rational number C between A and B.

    Binomial

    A binomial is any "0b93">algebraic expression which consists of exactly two "068a">terms.

    EXAMPLE: 3x + 5 is a binomial because there are exactly two terms. The terms are 3x and 5.

    EXAMPLE: 4a - 5b + 6 is not a binomial because there are three terms.

    Cartesian Plane

    See "071c">Coordinate Plane.

    Cartesian Product

    The Cartesian product of two "0b1e">sets S and T is the set of "0bcc">ordered pairs (s, t) such that s is a "0b13">member of S and t is a member of T. We denote the Cartesian product of S and T by the expression S T.

    EXAMPLE: If S = {1,2} and T = {x, y, z} then the Cartesian product is S T = {(1,x), (1,y), (1,z), (2,x), (2,y), (2,z)}

    EXAMPLE: The Cartesian product of two copies of the "0bc3">number line is exactly a "071c">coordinate plane consisting of all ordered pairs (x, y) where x and y are "0688">real numbers.

    Closed A "0b1e">set A is closed with respect to an "0bc9">operation(such as addition, subtraction or multiplication) if the result of performing that operation with "0bc8">operands chosen from the set A is always a member of the set A.<1>EXAMPLE: The set of "0688">real numbers is closed under the operations of addition, subtraction and multiplication. (NOTE: "0630">See Closure Law of Addition and "0631">Closure Law of Multiplication.) In other words, if you add, subtract or multiply any pair of real numbers, the result is a real number. <1>EXAMPLE: The set of real numbers is NOT closed under the operation of division because there is no real number 1/0. (NOTE: See "0bc1">Multiplicative Inverse.) <1>EXAMPLE: The set of "072a">rational numbers is closed under the operations of addition, subtraction and multiplication. In other words, if you add, subtract or multiply any pair of rational numbers, the result is a rational number. The same is true for the set of "07c2">integers. An "0bb8">interval is closed if it contains its "0bac">endpoints.A "0762">half-plane is closed if it contains the "0683">line defining it. Coefficient

    The coefficient of a "0bbf">monomial is the numerical "0b10">factor of the monomial.

    EXAMPLE: In the monomial 3x the coefficient is 3.

    Complex Numbers

    A complex number is an expression of the form A + Bi where A and B are "0688">real numbers and i is a symbol representing

    "0ed7"

    or the "07ba">square root of -1. (Because there is no real number which is the square root of -1, we say that i is an imaginary number.) It follows from the definition of square root that i2 = -1.

    EXAMPLE: Some complex numbers are 3 + 5i, 2 - 7i, -6 - i.

    Component

    In an "0bcc">ordered pair (x, y) the first component is the number x and the second component is the number y. (NOTE: See "0ba1">Coordinate.)

    Connective

    A connective is a symbol (such as <, > or =) used to connect two expressions in a "0bdc">sentence.

    Constant

    A constant is a symbol such as 3 or "A" which represents a single, fixed number. This is the opposite of the term "0be6">variable.

    Coordinate

    1. On a "0bc3">number line, the coordinate of a "0684">point is the "0688">real number that corresponds to that point.

    2. In the "071c">coordinate plane, the coordinates of a point are the "0b9e">components of the "0bcc">ordered pair that corresponds to the point. The first component is usually called the x-coordinate and the second component is usually called the y-coordinate.

    EXAMPLE: For the ordered pair (3,-2) the x-coordinate is 3 and the y-coordinate is -2.

    Cube

    The cube of a "0688">real number A is<1>A3 = A A A.

    Cube Root

    The cube root of a real number A is the "0688">real number B whose cube is equal to A. In other words, B satisfies the following relation.

    B3 = A.

    We denote the cube root of A by the symbol

    "0ed8"

    It follows from the definition that

    "0ed9"

    EXAMPLE: Because 23=8, it follows that

    "0eda"

    EXAMPLE: Because (-3)3=8, it follows that

    "0edb"

    Cubic Equation

    A cubic equation is any "0bae">equation which is"0b3e"> equivalent to an equation of the form Ax3 + Bx2 + Cx + D = 0 where A, B, C and D are real numbers and A is nonzero.

    EXAMPLE: 5x 3- 4x + 5 = 0 is a cubic equation.

    EXAMPLE: 3x - 4x2 = 2x3 + x is a cubic equation because it is equivalent to the equation -2x3 - 4x3 + 2x = 0.

    Cubic Function

    A cubic function is a "0bb0">function which is determined by a "0ba7">cubic polynomial.

    EXAMPLE: f(x) = 5x3 - 4x2 + 5 is a cubic function.

    Cubic Inequality

    A cubic inequality is any "0bb5">inequality which is "0b3e">equivalent to an inequality of one of the following forms.

    Ax 3 + Bx2 + Cx + D > 0

    Ax3 + Bx2 + Cx + D 0

    Ax3 + Bx2 + Cx + D < 0

    Ax3 + Bx2 + Cx + D 0

    where A, B, C and D are real numbers and A is nonzero.

    EXAMPLE: 5x3 - 4x2 + 5x + 2 < 0 is a cubic inequality.

    EXAMPLE: 3x - 4x2 2x3 is a cubic inequality because it is equivalent to the inequality -2x3 - 4x2 + 3x 0.

    Cubic Polynomial

    A cubic "0bd0">polynomial is a polynomial of "0ba8">degree equal to 3.

    EXAMPLE: 5x3 - 4x2 + 5x - 9 is a cubic polynomial.

    Degree

    1. The degree of a "0bbf">monomial is the "0b0f">exponent.

    EXAMPLE: The degree of the monomial 3x4 is 4.

    2. The degree of a "0bd0">polynomial is the largest exponent which occurs in the polynomial. That is, the degree is the degree of the monomial term with highest degree.

    EXAMPLE: The degree of the polynomial 3x5 - 2x4 + 5x -3 is 5 because this is the largest exponent which occurs.

    Discriminant

    The discriminant of a "0bd5">quadratic polynomial

    ax2 + bx + c

    is the following expression.

    discriminant = b2 - 4ac

    If the discriminant is positive, then the polynomial has two distinct zeroes, and both zeroes are "0688">real numbers.

    If the discriminant is negative, then the polynomial has two distinct zeroes, and both zeroes are "0b9d">complex numbers.

    If the discriminant is zero, then the polynomial has a single (repeated) zero, and the zero is a "0688">real number. (NOTE: See "0be7">Zero of a Polynomial.)

    EXAMPLE: The discriminant of the quadratic polynomial 3x2 + 6x - 5 is the number discriminant

    discriminant = 62 - 4(3)(-5)

    = 36 - (12)(-5)

    = 36 - (-60)

    = 36 + 60

    = 96

    Because the discriminent is positive, the polynomial has two distinct zeroes, and both zeroes are real numbers.

    Domain

    1. The domain of a "0bb0">function, "0b93">algebraic expression or "0bc7">open sentence is the set of allowable values for the variable or variables. The domain may be implied or explicitly stated.

    EXAMPLE: The domain of the function f(x) = 1/x is the set of all nonzero "0688">real numbers. This follows from the fact that 0 is the only real number without a "0bc1">multiplicative inverse.

    EXAMPLE: The domain of the function

    "0edc"

    is the set of all "0bc2">nonnegative real numbers. This is due to the fact that a negative number does not have a "07ba">square root.

    2. The domain of a "0bd9">relation (or a function which is given as a relation) is the set of all first "0b9e">components of the "0bcc">ordered pairs of the relation.

    EXAMPLE: The domain of the relation {(3,7), (4,-9), (4,5), (-2,100)}is the set {3, 4, -2}.

    Element

    See "0b13">Member.

    Endpoints

    If A and B are "0688">real numbers and A < B, then A and B are the endpoints of the "0bb8">intervals (A, B), (A,B], [A,B) and [A,B].

    Equal

    1. Two "0bc4">numerals are equal if they represent the same number.

    EXAMPLE: The numerals 3/4 and 0.75 are equal because they represent the same number.

    2. Two "0b1e">sets are equal if they have exactly the same "0b13">members without regard to the order in which the members may be listed.

    EXAMPLE: The sets {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and {5, 4, 3, 2, 1} are equal because they have the same members.

    3. Two "0bcc">ordered pairs are equal if they have exactly the same "0b9e">components in the same order.

    EXAMPLE: The ordered pairs (3,4) and (4,3) are NOT equal.

    4. Two "0bd0">polynomials are equal if they have the same "068a">terms without regard to the order in which they are listed.

    EXAMPLE: The polynomials x4 + 3x2 - 5x + 6 and 6 - 5x + 3x2 + x4 are equal because they have exactly the same terms.

    Equation

    An equation is any "0bdc">sentence in which the "0b9f">connective is an equal sign.

    EXAMPLE: The sentence 3x + 2x = 5x is an equation.

    EXAMPLE: The sentence 3x + 5 > 16 is NOT an equation.

    Exponential Expression

    An exponential expression is any algebraic expression consisting of one expression raised to the power of another expression.

    EXAMPLE: The expressions. x3 , 3n , (x+17)3+t are exponential expressions.

    Function

    A function is a rule which assigns, to each element of a "0b1e">set, a unique value in another set. One may think of a function as a machine which accepts certain values as input such that the output is the same every time the input is the same. A function may be represented as an "0b93">algebraic expression or as a "0bd9">relation in which each distinct "0bcc">ordered pair has a different first "0b9e">component .

    EXAMPLE: The algebraic expression 3x - 14 determines a function.

    EXAMPLE: The set of ordered pairs {(1,5), (2,4), (3,-12), (4,0)} determines a function because no distinct ordered pair has the same first component.

    EXAMPLE: The set of ordered pairs {(1,1), (1,2), (2,3), (3,4)} does NOT determine a function because the ordered pairs (1,1) and (1,2) have the same first coordinate.

    Graph

    1. The graph of a "0b1e">set of "0688">real numbers is the set of all "0684">points on the "0bc3">number line corresponding to the "0b13">members of the set.

    EXAMPLE: The graph of the "0bde">solution set of the inequality x > 2 is

    "0edd"

    2. The graph of a set of "0bcc">ordered pairs of real numbers is the set of all points on the "071c">coordinate plane corresponding to the members of the set.

    EXAMPLE: The graph of the "0bde">solution set of the equation y = x - 1 is

    "0ede"

    3. The graph of an "0bae">equation or "0bb5">inequality is the graph of the "0bde">solution set of the equation or inequality.

    4. The graph of a "0bb0">function f(x) is the graph of the "0bae">equation y = f(x).

    Greater Than

    The "0688">real number A is greater than the real number B if the difference A - B is positive. In other words, A is greater than B if the "0684">point on the "0bc3">number line corresponding to A sits to the right of the point corresponding to B. (NOTE: See Number Line.) We express this in symbols as A > B.

    EXAMPLE: > 3 because =3.141592635... (Note: See "0bce">Pi.)

    EXAMPLE: In the following "0bb1">graph

    "0edf"

    the number represented by the point B is greater than the number represented by the point A.

    Identity

    1. An identity is an "0bc7">open sentence which is true for all "0688">real numbers in its "0baa">domain.

    EXAMPLE: The sentence x + x = 2x is an identity.

    EXAMPLE: The sentence 3x=5 is NOT an identity because it is not true for all real numbers.

    2. See "0b91">Additive Identity and "0bc0">Multiplicative Identity.

    Imaginary Numbers

    An imaginary number is a "0b9d">complex number of the form Bi where B is a real number.

    EXAMPLE: Some imaginary numbers are 5i and - i.

    Inequality

    An equality is any "0bdc">sentence in which the "0b9f">connective is not an equal sign. In other words, an inequality is a comparison between two distinct "0688">real numbers expressing the order of the numbers on the "0bc3">number line.

    a b means "a is not equal to b."a > b means "a is "0bb2">greater than b."a < b means "a is "0bbb">less than b."

    EXAMPLE: The sentence 3x - 5 > 17 is an inequality.

    Intercept

    An x-intercept of a "0bb1">graph is the x-"0ba1">coordinate of any "0684">point in the "0bb1">graph which lies on the x-"0b95">axis. A y-intercept of a graph is the y-coordinate of any point in the graph which lies on the y-axis.

    EXAMPLE: In the graph of the "0bde">solution set of the equation y = x - 1 the x-intercept is 1 and the y-intercept is -1.

    "0ede"

    Intersection

    The intersection of two sets A and B is the set whose members are the elements that are in A and B simultaneously. We denote the intersection by the expression A B.

    EXAMPLE: For the sets A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4} the intersection is the set A B = {2, 4}.

    Interval

    If A is a "0688">real number that is less than the real number B, then the open interval (A, B) is the set of real numbers "0b97">between A and B.

    The closed interval [A, B] is the set of real numbers between A and B, including the endpoints A and B.

    The half-open interval (A, B] is the set of real numbers between A and B, including B.

    The half-open interval [A, B) is the set of real numbers between A and B, including A.

    Inverse

    1. The inverse of a "0bd9">relation R is the relation R-1 which is obtained by interchanging the "0b9e">components in each of the ordered pairs of R. If R is a "0bb0">function, the inverse relation may not be a function.

    EXAMPLE: If the relation R is given by the set R = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,3), (3,4)} then the inverse relation R-1 is given by the set

    R-1 = {(1,1), (2,1), (3,2), (4,3)}

    EXAMPLE: The relation given by the equation y = x2 is a function. As a set of ordered pairs, the relation is {(x,x2 )} where the values of x are taken from the "0688">real numbers. The inverse relation is given by the set {(x2, x)} where the values of x are taken from the real numbers. Equivalently, you can represent the inverse relation by the equation x = y2. Note that even though the inverse relation is a relation, it is not a function. This is due to the fact that (1,1) and (1, -1) are "0b13">members of the relation with the same x-"0ba1">coordinate.

    2. See "0b92">Additive Inverse and "0bc1">Multiplicative Inverse.

    Irrational Numbers

    An irrational number is a "0688">real number whose decimal expansion never terminates or repeats. In other words, an irrational number is "0688">a real number which is not "072a">rational. That is, an irrational number is a real number which can not be expressed as the "0b1c">quotient of two "07c2">integers.

    EXAMPLE: The real number

    "0ee0"

    is irrational. This is not very difficult to verify, but it is said that the first Greek to notice this fact was killed because the idea was so revolutionary.

    EXAMPLE: The real number = 3.14159265358979323846... is irrational. This is rather difficult to verify. (Note: See "0bce">Pi.)

    Less Than

    The "0688">real number A is less than the real number B if the difference A - B is negative. In other words, A is less than B if the "0684">point on the "0bc3">number line corresponding to A sits to the left of the point corresponding to B. We express this in symbols as A < B.

    EXAMPLE: < 4 because = 3.14159.... (Note: See "0bce">Pi.)

    EXAMPLE: In the following graph

    "0edf"

    The number represented by the point A is less than the number represented by the point B.

    Like Terms

    Like terms in a "0bd0">polynomial expression are any "068a">terms which are identical or which are identical except for their "0b9c">coefficients. Like terms are also called "similar terms."

    EXAMPLE: The expressions 3x2 and -7x2 are like terms.

    EXAMPLE: The expressions 3x2 and 3x4 are NOT like terms because the variables have different exponents.

    Linear Equation

    A linear equation is an equation which is "0b3e">equivalent to an equation of the form Ax + By = C where A, B and C are "0688">real numbers, and A and B are not both zero. The "0bb1">graph of a linear equation is a straight "0683">line.

    EXAMPLE: The equation y = 3x - 5 is a linear equation because it is equivalent to the equation -3x + y = -5.

    Linear Function

    A linear function is a "0bb0">function that is determined by a "0bd0">polynomial expression with "0ba8">degree equal to 1, that is, by an expression of the form Ax + B where A is nonzero. The "0bb1">graph of a linear function is a straight "0683">line.

    Monomial

    A monomial is an expression of the form Axn which consists of exactly one "068a">term.

    EXAMPLE: The expression 3x2 is a monomial.

    EXAMPLE: The expression 3x3 - 4x is NOT a monomial because there is more than one term.

    Multiplicative Identity

    The number 1 is called the multiplicative identity because 1 X = X = X 1 for any "0688">real number X.

    Multipilcative Inverse

    For a nonzero "0688">real number X the multiplicative inverse of X is the unique real number 1/X such that X (1/X) = 1.

    Note that the number 0 does not have a multiplicative inverse. That is, there is no real number 1/0. (This is what is meant by the statement, "You can not divide by zero."). To see why the number 0 does not have a multiplicative inverse, suppose that the real number A acted as a multiplicative inverse for 0. Then, by definition of the multiplicative inverse 0 A = 1. The "0638">zero law tells us that 0 A = 0 Therefore, we see that 1 = 0 A = 0 so that 1 = 0. This is, of course, an absurd conclusion because 1 represents something and 0 represents nothing, so they can not be equal.

    Nonnegative

    A "0688">real number A is nonnegative if it is "0bb2">greater than or equal to 0. In other words, A is nonnegative if it is not negative.

    Number Line

    A number line is a "0683">line on which a one-to-one correspondence between its "0684">points and the set of "0688">real numbers has been established in such a way that if a point P is to the left of a point Q, then the "0ba1">coordinate of the point P is "0bbb">less than the coordinate of the point Q. The number line is usually drawn in the following manner.

    "0ee1"

    Numeral

    A numeral is a symbol used to represent a specifically designated number or quantity.

    EXAMPLE: The following symbols are all numerals.

    "0ee2"

    Numerical Expression

    A numerical expression is any combination of "0bc4">numerals and "0bca">operational symbols which collectively represents a specific number.

    EXAMPLE: 3 + 4 = 7 is a numerical expression.

    Open

    1. An "0bb8">interval is open if it does not contain its "0bac">endpoints.

    2. A "0762">half-plane is open if it does not contain the "0683">line that defines it.

    Open Sentence

    An open sentence is a "0bdc">sentence which contains one or more "0be6">variables and which becomes either a true or false statement when each of its variables has been replaced by a member of its "0bda">replacement set.

    EXAMPLE: 3x = x + 4 is an open sentence.

    Operand

    An operand is any expression which is modified either alone (as in taking "07ba">square roots, "0ba3">cube roots, "0bdf">squares, "0ba2">cubes or "0758">absolute values) or by combining it with other expressions (as in addition, subtraction, multiplication or division). The methods of modification and combination are called "0bc9">operations.

    Operation

    An operation is a way of modifying a given expression (as in taking "07ba">square roots, "0ba3">cube roots, "0bdf">squares, "0ba2">cubes or "0758">absolute values) or combining expressions (as in addition, subtraction, multiplication or division). The expressions which are modified or combined are called the "0bc8">operands.

    Operational Symbols

    An operational symbol is a symbol such as +, -, and that represents an "0bc9">operation. (Note: "00bd">See Basic Math Symbols.)

    Order of Operations

    The order of operations is the set of rules which determine how arithmetic is done. It is like the set of grammar rules for evaluating "0bc5">numerical expressions.

    EXAMPLE: In the numerical expression 3 4 + 2 do you perform the addition or multiplication first?

    The order of operations says that arithmetic is done in the following order.

    Operations inside parenthesis or brackets are done first.Exponential expressions are done second.Multiplication is done third, from left to right.Division is done fourth, from left to right.Addition is done fifth, from left to right.Subtraction is done sixth, from left to right.

    One way to remember the order of operations is with the sentence "Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally". It breaks down this way:

    Please = Parenthesis <1>Excuse = Exponents <1>My = Multiplication <1>Dear = Division <1>Aunt = Addition <1>Sally = Subtraction

    EXAMPLE: In the expression 3 4 + 2, we perform the multiplication first, then the addition.<1>3 4 + 2 = 12 + 2 = 14

    EXAMPLE: Evaluate the numerical expression 2 + (3-5) 23 4 2.

    We follow the order of the operations: parenthesis first <1>= 2 + (-2) 23 4 2 <1>then exponents <1>= 2 + (-2) 8 4 2 <1>then multiplication from left to right <1>= 2 + (-16) 4 2 <1>= 2 + (-16) 8 <1>then division <1>= 2 + (-2) <1>then addition <1>= 0

    Ordered Pair

    An ordered pair is a pair of "0688">real numbers in which one of the numbers is designated as the first and the other number as the second.

    EXAMPLE: (3,4) is an ordered pair. Note that the ordered pairs (3,4) and (4,3) are NOT "0bad">equal because the order of the numbers matters in an ordered pair.

    Parabola

    A parabola is a curve that is the "0bb1">graph of a "0bd3">quadratic function or the graph of the "0bb9">inverse of a quadratic function.

    EXAMPLE: The graph of the equation y = x2 + 2x + 3 is the following curve. This graph is a parabola.

    "0ee3"

    EXAMPLE: The graph of the equation x = -y2 + 7 is the following curve. This graph is a parabola.

    "0ee4"

    Pi

    The real number is defined to be the "06ca">ratio of the "0651">circumference of a given circle to its "0656">diameter. That is, = (circumference)/(diameter). It is a fact that this ratio is the same no matter which circle you start with. The first 20 digits of the decimal expansion of are

    = 3.14159265358979363846

    Placeholder

    A placeholder is any symbol which may represent a number. Both "0ba0">constants and "0be6">variables are placeholders.

    EXAMPLE: In the expression Ax + 3y = C, the placeholders are the following symbols. A, x, y, C

    Polynomial

    A polynomial is an "0b93">algebraic expression which is "0b3e">equivalent to an expression in which each "068a">term is the "0b1b">product of a "0688">real number and a whole number power of some "0be6">variable.

    EXAMPLE: 3x + 5x2 - 4x3 + 5 is a polynomial.

    Quadratic Equation

    A quadratic equation is any "0bae">equation which is "0b3e">equivalent to an equation of the form Ax2 + Bx + C = 0 where A, B and C are "0688">real numbers and A is nonzero.

    EXAMPLE: 5x2 - 4x + 5 = 0 is a quadratic equation.

    EXAMPLE: 3x - 4x2 = 2x is a quadratic equation because it is equivalent to the equation -4x2 + x = 0

    Quadratic Formula

    Given a "0bd1">quadratic equation of the form <1>ax2 + bx + c = 0 <1>the quadratic formula describes the "0bde">solution set of the equation as

    "0ee5"

    EXAMPLE: Solve the equation 2x2 + 3x - 1 = 0. <1>This is a quadratic equation with a = 2, b = 3 and c = -1. <1>The quadratic formula tells you that the solutions are:

    "0ee6"

    Quadratic Function

    A quadratic function is a "0bb0">function which is determined by a "0bd5">quadratic polynomial.

    EXAMPLE: f(x) = 5x2 - 4x + 5 is a quadratic function.

    Quadratic Inequality

    A quadratic inequality is any "0bb5">inequality which is "0b3e">equivalent to an inequality of one of the following forms. <1>Ax2 + Bx + C > 0 <1>Ax2 + Bx + C 0 <1>Ax2 + Bx + C < 0 <1>Ax2 + Bx + C 0 <1>where A, B and C are real numbers and A is nonzero.

    EXAMPLE: 5x2 - 4x + 5 < 0 is a quadratic inequality.

    EXAMPLE: 3x - 4x 2 2x This is a quadratic inequality because it is equivalent to the inequality <1>-4x2 + x 0

    Quadratic Polynomial

    A quadratic polynomial is a "0bd0">polynomial of "0ba8">degree equal to 2.

    EXAMPLE: 5x2 - 4x + 5 is a quadratic polynomial.

    Quotient Number

    A quotient number is a positive "072a">rational number. Equivalently, a quotient number is the "0b1c">quotient of two "0b17">natural numbers.

    Radical Sign

    A radical sign is a symbol used to designate a principal root, as in "07ba">square root, "0ba3">cube root, and so on.

    EXAMPLE: The following are radical signs.

    "0ee7"

    Range

    1. The range of a "0bb0">function or an "0b93">algebraic expression is the set of all "0be5">values the expression can assume after replacements have been made for each "0be6">variable in the expression.

    EXAMPLE: The range of the function f(x) = 1/x is the set of all nonzero real numbers. This follows from the fact that 0 is the only real number without a "0bc1">multiplicative inverse.

    EXAMPLE: The range of the function

    "0edc"

    is the set of all nonnegative real numbers. This is due to the fact that the principal "07ba">square root of a number can not be negative.

    2. The range of a "0bd9">relation is the set of all second "0b9e">components of the "0bcc">ordered pairs of the relation

    EXAMPLE: The range of the relation {(3,7), (4,-9), (4,5), (-2,100)} is the set {7, -9, 5, 100}.

    Relation

    A relation is any set of "0bcc">ordered pairs of "0688">real numbers.

    EXAMPLE: {(1,2), (1,1), (4,-9.2)} is a relation.

    Replacement Set

    The replacement set for a "0bb0">function, "0b93">algebraic expression or "0bc7">open sentence is the set of all possible "0be5">values which may be substituted for the "0be6">variable. This is the same as the "0baa">domain.

    EXAMPLE: The replacement set for the function

    "0ee8"

    is the set of all nonzero real numbers. This follows from the fact that 0 is the only real number without a "0bc1">multiplicative inverse.

    EXAMPLE: The replacement set for of the function

    "0edc"

    is the set of all nonnegative real numbers. This is due to the fact that a negative number does not have a "07ba">square root.

    Root of a Polynomial

    See "0be7">Zeroes of a Polynomial.

    Sentence

    A sentence is any combination of two expressions and a "0b9f">connective which collectively expresses an assertion.

    EXAMPLE: The following are sentences.

    3x = 2

    x + 12 > 16x

    Similar Terms

    See "0bbc">Like Terms.

    Solution Set

    For an "0bc7">open sentence in one "0be6">variable, the solution set is the "0b1e">set of all "0be5">values in the "0baa">domain which result in a true statement. For an open sentence in two variables, the solution set is the set of all (allowable) "0bcc">ordered pairs which result in a true statement.

    EXAMPLE: The solution set for the equation 3x = 6 is the set {2} because the value x = 2 is the only value which makes the statement true.

    EXAMPLE: The solution set for the equation x + x = 2x is the set of "0688">real numbers because this statement is an "0bb3">identity.

    EXAMPLE: The solution set for the equation x = x + 1 contains no elements. This is because the equation is "0b3e">equivalent to the equation 0 = 1, which is an absurd statement.

    Square

    The square of a "0688">real number A is A2 = A A.

    Statement

    A statement is any "0bdc">sentence to which one of the labels "true" or "false" can be assigned.

    EXAMPLE: The statement 1 + 2 = 3 is true.

    EXAMPLE: The statement 1 = 0 is false.

    Subset

    A set B is a subset of the "0b1e">set C if every "0b13">member of B is also a member of C.

    EXAMPLE: The set {1, 2, 3} is a subset of the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.

    EXAMPLE: The set {0, 3, 6} is NOT a subset of the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} because the number 6 is in the first set and not in the second set.

    EXAMPLE: The set of "0b17">natural numbers is a subset of the set of "0b22">whole numbers. The set of whole numbers is a subset of the set of "07c2">integers. The set of integers is a subset of the set of "072a">rational numbers. The set of rational numbers is a subset of the set of "0688">real numbers.

    Trinomial

    A trinomial is an expression which consists of exactly three "068a">terms.

    EXAMPLE: The expression 3x3 + 5x + 4 is a trinomial because there are exactly three terms, namely, 3x, 5x , and 4.

    EXAMPLE: The expression 3x + 17 is not a trinomial because it only has two terms.

    Union

    The union of two "0b1e">sets B and C is the set consisting of those "0b13">members which are in either B or C (or both). We denote the union of B and C by the expression B C.

    EXAMPLE: The union of the sets B = {1, 2, 3} and C = {3, 4, 5, 6} is the set B C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

    Universe

    If every set in a discussion is a "0be1">subset of a fixed set U, then U is called the universe or the universal set.

    Value The value of a "0bc5">numerical expression is the specific number which the numerical expression represents. An "0b93">algebraic expression has a value only if a numerical replacement is made for each "0be6">variable in the expression.<1>EXAMPLE: The value of the numerical expression 5 + 3 is the number 8.<1><1>A value for a variable is a number which may be substituted for the variable. Variable

    A variable is a symbol such as x and y which may represent more than one number.

    Zero of a Polynomial

    A zero of a "0bd0">polynomial is a "0be5">value for the "0be6">variable which evaluates the polynomial to zero. In other words, if the polynomial is P(x), then the zeroes of the polynomial are the solutions to the equation P(x) = 0. The zeroes of a polynomial are also called the roots of the polynomial.

    EXAMPLE: The zeroes of the polynomial x2 - 1 are the numbers 1 and -1.

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    1. If B and C are two "0684">points on a "0683">line, then the endpoints of the "073b">line segment BC are the points B and C.<1>2. If a given "0761">ray is the subset of a given line consisting of all points of the line that lie on one side of the point P, then the endpoint of the ray is the point P.<1>"0ee9"

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"""!" """ "!" " " "!"" "!" "!" "!" "!"" "!"" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " """" " "3030333303030303030303030303130303030303030313030303030303031303030303030303130303030303#"32"#230323#3#323#30323#323#313#3#3232303#32"3232303#3#3#32303#3#3232303#3#3"32303#23#3232303#3"3#"323032#323#3#3132#323#3#303#323030303030303130303030333333333033333330303333333303333333330030333333330333333333333333330333333330303030303031303030303030303130303030303032#3032#3130303030303#3232"#230323"3#323#30323"323#313#323232303#323"#32303#3#23232303#2"3#23"#3232303#32"#3232303#323#3232303#323#32"#3230323#3#31323#3#303#323030303030303130303030303030313030303030303030303033330303"!"!"!""""!"!"!"!"""!"""!"!"!""!""!""!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!" "!"""!" """!" " "!""!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!"!""""!"!"!"Acute Angle

    An "0750">angle is acute if its measure is greater than 0 and strictly smaller than 90. (NOTE: See "00f6">Postulate P-11.)

    Bisector of a Line Segment

    A bisector of a "073b">line segment is a "0683">line, "0761">ray or line segment which separates the given segment into two "0749">congruent segments. In other words, a line, ray or line segment bisects the given segment if it crosses the segment and the point of crossing is the "073c">midpoint of the segment.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure

    "0eea"

    the line PQ is a bisector of the segment BC.

    Collinear Points

    A set of "0684">points is collinear if they lie on the same"0683"> line.

    Coplanar Lines

    A set of "0683">lines is coplanar if the lines all lie in a single "0741">plane.

    Corollary

    A corollary is a "0c46">theorem that is easily proved by means of a closely related theorem.

    Distance Between a Point and a Plane

    Given a "0741">plane and a "0684">point not on the given plane, the distance from the point to the plane is the smallest distance from the given point to any point of the given plane. This distance is always the "0740">length of the line segment passing through the given point that is "073d">perpendicular to the given plane and whose "0c0a">endpoints are the given point and the point where the line segment crosses the given plane.

    Obtuse Angle

    An "0750">angle is obtuse if its measure is strictly greater than 90 and strictly smaller than 180 (NOTE: See "00f6">Postulate P-11.).

    Opposite Rays

    Two "0761">rays are opposite one another if they have the same "0c0a">endpoint and together form a "0683">line.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure the rays BA and BC are opposite rays.

    "0eeb"

    Perpendicular Planes

    Two "0741">planes are perpendicular if they intersect so that each plane contains a "0683">line and the lines are "073d">perpendicular.

    Postulate

    A postulate is a statement whose truth is accepted without proof.

    Projection of a Line Segment

    The projection of a given "073b">line segment onto a given "0683">line, when the segment is not "073d">perpendicular to the line, is the segment whose "0c0a">endpoints are the "0c44">projections of the endpoints of the given line segment onto the given line.

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure the segment P1 Q1 is the projection of the segment PQ onto the line AB.

    "0eec"

    Projection of a Point onto a Line

    The projection of a given "0684">point onto a given "0683">line is the point of intersection of the given line with the unique line passing through the given point which is "073d">perpendicular to the given line. (NOTE: See "00ee">Theorem T-4.)

    EXAMPLE: In the following figure the point Q is the projection of the point P onto the line.

    "0eed"

    Side

    The sides of an "0750">angle are the "0761">rays which determine the angle.

    Theorem

    A theorem is a statement that is not self-evident but that can be proved from accepted premises and so is established as a law or principle.

    Vertex

    The vertex of an "0750">angle is the intersection "0684">point of the"0761"> rays that determine the angle.

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    "0eee"

    XXu"""1"#1"#3"#3"31"31"#3#2"#3"3!"3"3!"3"3""#32"3"!"#32"3"!"3#2"#2"" 3#2"#2""#3"#2"!"#23"#2""323"#2""3#2"3"!"3#2"3""#2#2"3""#2#2"3"!"3"3"3""3"3"#2""#2"3"#2"!"#2#3"#2""3"#2"#2""3"#2"#2"!"#2"#2"3"!"#2"3"3""3"3"3"!"3"3"3"!"#3"3"3""#2"#2"#2"!"32"#2"#2"!"3"#2"#2""3"3"#2""#2"3"#2"!"#2"3"3""3"3"3""3"#2"3"!"#2"#2"3""#2"#2"3""3"#2"#2"!"3"3"#2"#3"#2"32"#2"32"32"#3"#2"#3"3"32"3"32"#3"#3"3"#3"#2"32"3"32"#2#3"3"#3"3"32"3"32"3#3"#2"#3"#232"#2"32"#3"#2"#3"32"#2"32"3"#2#3"#32"32"#3"3"32"#3"""""""Hexahedron

    "0eef"

    Icosahedron

    "0ef0"

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    "0ef1"

    """""3"32"#3"#32"30"32"#3 "#3#2"32 "32#2"#3" "#3"#2"32" "32"#2"#3" "#3"#2"32" "32"#2"#3" "#3"#2"32" "32"#2"#3" "#3"#2"32" "32"#2"#3" "#3"#2"32" "32"#2"#3" "#3"#2"32" "32"#2"#3" "#3"#2"32" "32"#2"#3" "#3"#2"32" "32"#2"#3" "#3"#2"32" "32"#2"#3"#2"#32"#2"#2" "#2"#2"#2" "#2"#2"#2" "#2"#2"#2" "#2"#2"#2" "#2"#2"#2" "#2"#2"#2" "#2"#2"#2" "#2"#2"#2" "#2"#2"#2" "#2"#2"#2" "#2"#2"#2" "#2"#2"#2" "#2"#2"#2" "#2"#2"#2" "#2"#2"#2" "#2"#2"#2" "#2"#2"#2" "#2"#2"#2" "#2"#2"#2" "#2"#2"#2" "#2"#2"#2" "#2"#2"#2" 02"#2"03"#2" "#2"#3"#2""#2"32"#2" "#2"#3"#2""#2"32"#2" "#2"#3"#2""#2"32"#2" "#2"#3"#2""#2"32"3"#2" "#2"#3"#3"#2""#2"32"30#2"#2" "#2"#3"#3#3"#2""#2"32"30"32"#2" "#2"#3"#3"#2"#2""#2"32"30"3"#2" "#2"#3"#3"32"#2""#2"32"30"#3"#2" "#2"#3"#3"3"#2""#2"32"30"#2"#2 "#2#3"#3"#3"#2"#232"32"32"#0"#3"#3 "#2"#0"#32"32"3"#3"#3 "32"32"32 "#3"#3""3"32 "#2"#3""#3"32""32"#3" "#2"32""3"#3" "32"32" "#3"#3""3"32" "#2"#3""#3"32""32"#3" "#2"32""3"#3" 32"32"3"#3" "#3"32""32"#3" "#3"32""32"#3" "#3"32""32"#3" "#3"#3""32"3" "#3"#3#2"32"32#3"#3"3"32"32"#2" 2"#3"32"3"32"#3" "32"#3"#2""#3"32"3" "3"#3"#3""#2"32"32 "#3"#3"3""32"32"#2 "#2"#3"32"3"32"#3 "32"#3"#2"#3"32"3 "3"#3"#3"#2"32"30"#3"#3"3"32"32"#0"#2"#3"30"3"32"#3"32"#3"#0"#3"32"3"3"#3"#3"#2"32"30"#3"#3"3"32"32"#0"#2#3"32"32"#3"32"""""P"""""#3"3"32"#232"323"3"32"#3"3#2"#2"3#3"3"3"3"#3"#"#2"#2"#2#3"32"#2"3"3"#2"32"#2"#2"#2"32"#2"3"3"#2"32"#3"2"#2"#3"#2"3"#3"32"3"3"3"3"#3"3"#2"#032"#2"3"#3"303#3"32"3"3"33"32"3"3"32"#33"#3"#2"#"#2"#0#2"32"32"#2"3"3"#2"#3"3"#2"32"#3"#2"32"#3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#3"#2"#2"#3"30"#2"32"3"#2"3"3 "3"#3"#3"#2"#2"#2 "3"32"#2"2"#3"32"3"#3"32"3"3"3""3"32"3"3"32"#3""3"#3"#2"3"#2"#2 "#2"32"32"3"3"3" "#2"#3"3"3"32"#3" "#2"32"#2"3"#2"#2""#2"#3"#2"#"#3"32""#2"32"3"#2"3"3""3"#3"#002"#2" 332"3003"32"33"#32"#2"#3"3" "3"#3"#32"#2"32"#3""3"32"#32"#2"#3"#2 "#2"#3"#32"3"32"3""#2"32"#32"3"#3"#3 "#2"#3"#32"3"32"#2"#2"32"#32"3"#3"30"#2"#3"#32"3"32"3"3"32"#32"3"#3"#0"3"#3"#32"3"32"30"3"32"#32"#2#3"3"3"#3"#32"#232"#0"3"32"#32#3"#0"#3"#32"3"#32"#3"#3"#2"32""""""""pp""#32"3"32"#3"3"3"#32"#32"#3"32"#3"32"3"3"3"3"#3"32"#32"#32"32"#3"#3"32"32"#3"#3"32"32"#3"#3"32"32"#3"#3"32"32"#3"3"3"#2"#2"32"#3"3"3"#2"#2"32"#3"3"3"#3"32"#2"#2"32"#3"3"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"32""#3"3" "3"3"""3"3" " "3"#2"""#2"#2" " "#2"#2"""#2"#2"" "#2"#2"""#2"3" ""3"3 " 3"3" 3"3"3"3" 3"3"3" 3"3"3"3"3"33"3"3"3"3"3"3" 3"3"3"3" 3"3 "3"#2 "#2"#2"" "#2"#2"""#2"#2"" "#2"#2" ""#2"3"" "3"3" ""3"3"" "3"32" "#3"#2""#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"3"32"#3"#2"#2"#3"32"3"3"32"#3"#2"#2"3"3"32"#3"#2"#2"3"3"32"#3"#3"32"32"#3"#3"32"32"#3"#3"32"32"#3"#3"32"32"#3"#32"#32"#3"32"3"3"3"3"#3"32"#3"32"#32"#32"3"3"32"#3"3"#32"""""""""!"1"12"#13"#13"3!32"3!#2"#2!#3"#2!"3"3"!"#2"#3"!"#2"#2"!"3"32"!"3"3"!"#2"#3"!"#3"#2"!"3"3"!"32"3"!"#2"#2"!"#3"#2"!"3"3"!"32"#3"!"#2"#2"!"3"32"!"3"3"!"#2"#3"!"#2"#2"!"3"3"!"32"3"!"#2"#2"!"#3"#2"!"3"3"!"32"#3"!"#2"#2"!"3"32"!"3"3"!"#2"#3"!"#2"#2"!"3"3"!"3"3"!"#2"#2"!"#3"#2"!"3"3"!"32"#3"!"#2"#2"!"#3"32"!"3"3"!"#2"#3"!"#2"#2"!"3"3"!"3"3"!"#2"#2"!"#3"#2"!"3"3"!"32"#3"!"#2"#2"!"#3"32"!"3"3"!"#2"#3"!"#2"#2"!"3"3"!"3"3"!"#2"#2"!"#2"#2"!"3"3"!"32"#3"!"#2"#2"!"#3"32"!"3"3"!"32"#3"!"#2"#2"!"3"3"!"3"3"!"#2"#2"!"#2"#2"!"3"3"!"3"#3"!"#2"#2"!"#3"32"!"3"3"!"32"#3"!"#2"#2"!"#3"3"!"3"3"!"#2"#2"!"#2"#2"!"3"3"!"3"#3"!"#2"#2"!"#3"32"!" 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"#2"#3" "#2"#32" "#2"3" "!"#2"#3" "!"#2"#32""!#2"3""!"!2"#3""!"!2"#32""!"#2"3""!"#2"#3" "!"#2"#32" !"#2"3" "#2"#3" "#2"#32"!"#2"32"!"#2"#3"!"#2"#32"!""#2"32!""#2"#3""#2"#32 #2"302"#32"#3""""""""""""""Pu"""""#3"#2"3"3"32"3"32"#32"#31"#22"#312"323"3232"3"3"32#3"3"#2"#32#32"#2"!2"#32#12"#2"!3"3"#13"3"!3"3"#232"3"!#2"#23"3#2"#2"#2"#23"33"#2""3"32"3!3"3""3"3#2"3!#2"3""#2"#3#2"3"#3"#2""#2"#23"#2"3"#2"!"3"#23"#2#2"3"!"3"3"3"#2!#3"3"!"32"3"3"#2!"3"#2"!"#2"#2#2"#2""#2"#2""#3"#2#2"3""#3"3""3"3"#2"3"!"3"3""32"3"32"3"!"#2"#2""#2"#2"3"3"!"#2"#2""#3"#2"3"3""3"3"!"3"3"3"#2""32"3"!"32"3"#2"#2"!"#2"#2"!"#2"#2"#2"#2"!"3"#2"!"#3"#2"#2"#2"!"32"32""3"32"#2"#2""#2"3""32"3"3"3""3"#3""#2"#3"3"3"!"32"#2""#3"#2"3"3"!"#2"32""3"#2"#2"3"!"3"3"!"3"3"#2"3""3"#3"!"#2"3"#2"#2""#2"#2"!"#2"#2"#2"#2"!"#3"#2"!"3"#2"3"#2"!"3"3""3"3"3"#2"!"#2"3""#2"3"3"#2""#3"#2""#2"#2"3"3""3"#2""3"#2"#3132"3""3"3"313"3"#31"#2"3"#3"3""#3"#2"#3132"#2"#3"32"3""32"#2#32"#132"3"#2"#3"#2""#3"3#32"!"323"32"32"#2"!32"3""32"3"#3"#2"!3"#3""32"3"32"#2"2"#3""3"#2#3"#2"#3"32""3"#232"3"32"32""3"3#3"3"#3"#3"!"32"32"3"32"#3"!"32"#3"3"#3"#3"!"#32"#32"3"32"#32"!32"3"#3"#3"#3132"32"#32"#32"#3"#32"32"""""""pp""#32"3"32"#3"3"3"#32"#32"#3"32"#3"32"3"3"3"3"#3"32"#32"#32"32"#3"#3"32"32"#3"#3"32"32"#3"#3"32"32"#3"#3"32"32"#3"3"3"#2"#2"32"#3"3"3"#2"#2"32"#3"3"3"#3"32"#2"#2"32"#3"3"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"32""#3"3" "3"3"""3"3" " "3"#2"""#2"#2" " "#2"#2"""#2"#2"" "#2"#2"""#2"3" ""3"3 " 3"3" 3"3"3"3" 3"3"3" 3"3"3"3"3"33"3"3"3"3"3"32"#3"3"3"32"#3"3#3"323"#2#3"32#2"#2"32"#3"#2"#2"3"3"#2"#2"32"#3"#2"#2"#3"32"#2"3"32"#3"3"3"#3"32"3"3"32"#3"3"32"#32"#3"#2"3"#2"#2"#2"3"3"3"3"32"#3"#2"#2"#3"32"3"3"32"#3"#2"#2"3"3"32"#3"#2"#2"3"3"32"#3"#3"32"32"#3"#3"32"32"#3"#3"32"32"#3"#3"32"32"#3"#32"#32"#3"32"3"3"3"3"#3"32"#3"32"#32"#32"3"3"32"#3"3"#32""""Tetrahedron

    "0ef2"

    `333131313130333133113131303313311333131311313131303310113311333131011313103130331011331103331301011313103130331011331103331301011313103130331011331103331301011313103130331011311033130101131031331011110313010111103131011110330101111303131011113010101111010101111010101111301010111130101011110101011110101011110101011110101011110101011110101011110101011110101011110101011110101011110101011110101011110101011110101012"#2"#10101013"#2"3010101311301010131310101013113010131313131033311330103313131031311330103313131031311330103313131031311330103311310313301033131031330103131031313313131313313033313033313033313033313033313033313033131Xu"""""""""#"#32"#3"#32"#3"323"32"3"3"3"#3"#2"#3#23"#2"#2"#3"3#3"#2"3"3"3#3"3"3"3"3"3"3"#2"#32"3"#2"#2"#2"#32"3"#3"#2"3"3#2"#2"3"3"3" 3#2"#2"32"3"#2"#3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#23"#2"3"#2"3"323"#2"32"3"3"3#2"3"#2"3"#2"3#2"3"3"#2"#2"#2#2"3"32"#2"#3"#2#2"3"#2"3"3"3"3"3"32"3"32"3"3"#2"32"#2"#2"#2"3"#2"#2"#2"#3"#2#3"#2"3"3"3"3"#2"#2"3"3"32"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"#3"#2"#3"#2"3"3"3"3"3"3"3"3"#2"3"32"3"3"3"#3"#3"#2"#3"3"3"3"#2"#3"#2"#2"#2"#2"32"3"32"#2"#2"#3"3"32"3"#2"#2"3"#3"#2"#"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"#2"#2"32"3"#2"3"3"3"3"3"3"3"3"32"3"#2"3"#2"3"#2"#2"#2"#2"#2"3"3"#2"3"#2"#2"3"32"3"3"3"#2"#2"#2"3"#2"3"3"#2"#2"#2"#32"#2"3"3"#2"32"#2"32"3"3"3"32"#3"#2"#3"3"3"3"#2"3"32"3"32"#23"#3#2"#3"#3"3"#3"#32"#3"#2"32"3"32"32"#3"#2#3"3"#3"32"#32"3"32"3"32"#3"#2"3#3"#2"#3"#3"#2"#232"#2"32"32"#3"#3"#2"#3"32"#3"32"#2"32"32"3"3"#2#3"3"3"#32"32"32"3"#3"3"3"32"3"#3""""""""""""  """ " "         "      ""  "        "        "  "" " ""  " "   " "        " " "  "" "" " " " "            "        ""        """"   "    ""        "   ""   ""    "  "       "  "   "     " "   "         " """  "   "     "      ""     " "   " "  "            "  "" " "   "" "  " " "        "  "" " "  " "" " "" "" "              "" " ""  Acute Triangle

    A "0721">triangle is acute if each "0783">interior angle has measure less than 90o.

    EXAMPLE: The following triangle is acute.

    "0ef3"

    Base Angles of an Isosceles Triangle

    Given an "07a1">isosceles triangle, the base angles are the "0722">angles that lie opposite the "0723">congruent "0720">sides of the given triangle.

    EXAMPLE: In the following isosceles triangle

    "0ccb"

    the base angles are the angles ABC and BCA.

    Length (of a Line Segment)

    The length of a "0c98">line segment is defined to be the distance between the "078d">endpoints.

    "0ef4"

    Line Segment

    If B and C are two "078a">points on a "0683">line, then the line segment BC is the set of points of that line consisting of the points B and C and all points which lie "073f">between the points B and C.

    "0ef4"

    Obtuse Angle

    An "0722">angle is obtuse if its measure is greater than 90.

    Perpendicular Bisector of a Side of a Triangle

    Given a "0721">triangle and a "0720">side of the given triangle, a perpendicular bisector of the given side is a "0683">line, "0761">ray or "0c98">line segment which intersects the given side at its "07b0">midpoint and is "073d">perpendicular to the given side.

    EXAMPLE: In the triangle ABC

    "0cbf"

    the line segment DE is a perpendicular bisector of the side BC.

    Pythagorean Theorem

    (T-43.) In a "0798">right triangle, let a and b denote the lengths of the "079a">legs and let c denote the length of the "07b5">hypotenuse. Then the following formula holds.

    a2 + b2 = c2

    See also "0108">Theorems and Corollaries of Right Triangles

    Pythagorean Triple

    Three "0b17">natural numbers x, y and z form Pythagorean triple if they satisfy the equation

    x 2+ y2 = z2

    The name Pythagorean triple was given in honor of the Greek mathematician Pythagoras.

    EXAMPLE: The numbers 3, 4 and 5 form a Pythagorean triple because 32 + 42 = 9 + 16 = 25 and 52 = 25.

    Scale Factor

    See "07b9">Ratio of Similitude.

    Scalene Triangle

    A "0721">triangle is scalene if it has no "0723">congruent "0720">sides.

    EXAMPLE: The following triangle is scalene.

    "0ef5"

    Sierpinski Triangle

    A Sierpinski triangle is a fractal triangle created by connecting the "07b0">midpoints of the "0720">sides of an "078e">equilateral triangle and continuing the process indefinitely. The Sierpinski triangle is named after the Polish mathematician Waclaw Sierpinski.

    "0ef6"

    Trigonometry

    Trigonometry is the study of the properties of "0721">triangles, "0793">trigonometric ratios and their applications.

    Vertex Angle of an Isosceles Triangle

    Given an "07a1">isosceles triangle, the vertex angle is the "0722">angle formed by the "0723">congruent "0720">sides of the given triangle.

    EXAMPLE: In the following isosceles triangle

    "0ccc"

    the vertex angle is the angle BAC.

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"!""""""""8 0r""""""!"!""!"!"""#2"3"3"#3#2"#2#2"32"3"3"3"#3"#2"#2"#2"32"3"3"3"#3"#2"#2"#2"32"3"3"3"#3"#2"#2"#2"32"3"3"3"#3"#2"#2"#2"32"3" "3"3" " "#3"#2" " "#2"#2" " ""32"3" """3"3"" ""#3"#2" """#2"#2""32"3"3"3"#3"#2"#2"#2"32"3"3"3"#3"#2"#2"#2"32"3"3"3"#3"#2"#2"#2"32"3"3"3"#3"#2"#2"#2"32"3"3"3"#3"#2"#2"#2"32"3"3"3"#3"#2"#2"#2"32"3"3"3"#3"#2"#2"#2"32"3"3"3"#3"#2"#2"#2"32"3"3"3"#32"3"""!"!""!"!"!"!"!""" """ " " " """""""""""""""""""""""""""""(("""""""""" "" """" """(Acres to Hectares

    Multiply by: 0.4047

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 acres to hectares.

    5 acres = (5 0.4047) hectares = 2.0235 hectares

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Acres to Square Feet

    Multiply by: 43,560

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 acres to square feet.

    5 acres = (543,560) square feet = 217,800 square feet

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Acres to Square Miles

    Multiply by: 0.001562

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 acres to square miles.

    5 acres = (5 0.001562) square miles = 0.00781 square miles

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Atmospheres to CMS. of Mercury

    Multiply by: 76

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 atmospheres to cms. of mercury.

    5 atmospheres = (5 76) cms. Of mercury = 380 cms. of mercury

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Bales to Reams (Paper Measure)

    Multiply by: 10

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 bales to reams.

    5 bales = (5 10) reams = 50 reams

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Barrels to Hogshead

    Multiply by: 0.5

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 barrels to hogsheads.

    5 barrels = (5 0.5) hogsheads = 2.5 hogsheads

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Barrels to Gallons

    Multiply by: 31.5

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 barrels to gallons.

    5 barrels = (5 31.5) gallons = 157.5 gallons

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    BTU to Horsepower-Hour

    Multiply by: 0.0003931

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 BTU to horsepower-hours

    5 BTU = (5 0.0003931) horsepower-hours = 0.0019655 horsepower-hours

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    BTU to Kilowatt Hour

    Multiply by: 0.0002928

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 BTU to kilowatt-hours.

    5 BTU = (5 0.0002928) kilowatt-hours = 0.001464 kilowatt-hours

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    BTU/Hour to Watts

    Multiply by: 0.2931

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 BTU/hour to watts.

    5 BTU/hour = (5 0.2931) watts = 1.4655 watts

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Bushels (US) to Cubic Inches

    Multiply by: 2150.4

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 US bushels to cubic inches.

    5 US bushels = (5 2150.4) cubic inches = 10,752 cubic inches

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Bushels (US) to Hectoliters

    Multiply by: 0.3524

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 US bushels to hectoliters.

    5 US bushels = (5 0.3524) hectoliters = 1.762 hectoliters

    Bushels (US) to Pecks

    Multiply by: 4

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 US bushels to pecks.

    5 US bushels = (5 4) pecks = 20 pecks

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Celsius to Fahrenheit

    Multiply by: 1.8<1>then add: 32

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit.

    5 degrees Celsius = [(5 1.8) + 32] degrees Fahrenheit = 41 degrees Fahrenheit

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Celsius to Kelvin

    Add: 273

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 degrees Celsius to degrees Kelvin.

    5 degrees Celsius = (5 + 273) degrees Kelvin = 278 degrees Kelvin

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Centigrams to Grams

    Multiply by: 0.01

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 centigrams to grams.

    5 centigrams = (5 0.01) grams = 0.05 grams

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Centiliters to Liters

    Multiply by: 0.01

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 centiliters to liters.

    5 centiliters = (5 0.01) liters = 0.05 liters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Centimeters to Inches

    Multiply by: 0.3937

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 centimeters to inches.

    5 centimeters = (5 0.3937) inches = 1.9685 inches

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Centimeters to Feet

    Multiply by: 0.03281

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 centimeters to feet.

    5 centimeters = (5 0.03281) feet = 0.16405 feet

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Centimeters to Meters

    Multiply by: 0.01

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 centimeters to meters.

    5 centimeters = (5 0.01) meters = 0.05 meters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Centuries to Years

    Multiply by: 100

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 centuries to years.

    5 centuries = (5 100) years = 500 years

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Circumference to Radians

    Multiply by: 6.283

    EXAMPLE: Convert a 5 circumference to radians

    5 circumference = (5 6.283) radians = 31.415 radians

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Cords to Cubic Feet

    Multiply by: 128

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 cords to cubic feet.

    5 cords = (5 128) cubic feet = 640 cubic feet

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Cubic Feet to Cords

    Multiply by: 0.0078125

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 cubic feet to cords.

    5 cubic feet = (5 0.0078125) cords = 0.0390625 cords

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Cubic Feet to Cubic Inches

    Multiply by: 1728

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 cubic feet to cubic inches.

    5 cubic feet = (5 1728) cubic inches = 8640 cubic inches

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Cubic Feet to Cubic Meters

    Multiply by: 0.0283

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 cubic feet to cubic meters.

    5 cubic feet = (5 0.0283) cubic meters = 0.1415 cubic meters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Cubic Feet to Cubic Yards

    Multiply by: 0.037

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 cubic feet to cubic yards.

    5 cubic feet = (5 0.037) cubic yards = 0.185 cubic yards

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Cubic Feet to Perches

    Multiply by: 0.040

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 cubic feet to perches.

    5 cubic feet = (5 0.040) perches = 0.20 perches

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Cubic Inches to Cubic Feet

    Multiply by: 0.0005787

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 cubic inches to cubic feet.

    5 cubic inches = (5 0.0005787) cubic feet = 0.0028935 cubic feet

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Cubic Meters to Cubic Feet

    Multiply by: 35.3145

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 cubic meters to cubic feet.

    5 cubic meters = (5 35.3145) cubic feet = 176.5725 cubic feet

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Cubic Meters to Cubic Yards

    Multiply by: 1.3079

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 cubic meters to cubic yards.

    5 cubic meters = (5 1.3079) cubic yards = 6.5395 cubic yards

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Cubic Yards to Cubic Feet

    Multiply by: 27

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 cubic yards to cubic feet.

    5 cubic yards = (5 27) cubic feet = 135 cubic feet

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Cubic Yards to Cubic Meters

    Multiply by: 0.7646

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 cubic yards to cubic meters.

    5 cubic yards = (5 0.7646) cubic meters = 3.823 cubic meters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Cubit (Biblical) to Inches

    Multiply by: 21.8

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 biblical cubits to inches.

    5 biblical cubits = (5 21.8) inches = 109 inches

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Cubit (Greek) to Inches

    Multiply by: 18.3

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 Greek cubits to inches.

    5 Greek cubits = (5 18.3) inches = 91.5 inches

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Cubit (Roman) to Inches

    Multiply by: 17.5

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 Roman cubits to inches.

    5 Roman cubits = (5 17.5) inches = 87.5 inches

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Days to Hours

    Multiply by: 24

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 days to hours.

    5 days = (5 24) hours = 120 hours

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Days to Minutes

    Multiply by: 1440

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 days to minutes.

    5 days = (5 1440) minutes = 7200 minutes

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Days to Month (Calendar)

    Multiply by: 0.0333

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 days to calendar months.

    5 days = (5 0.0333) calendar months = 0.1665 calendar months

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Days to Seconds

    Multiply by: 86,400

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 days to seconds.

    5 days = (5 86,400) seconds = 432,000 seconds

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Days to Weeks

    Multiply by: 0.142857

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 days to weeks.

    5 days = (5 0.142857) weeks = 0.714285 weeks

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Days to Years (Common)

    Multiply by: 0.0027397

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 days to common years.

    5 days = (5 0.0027397) common years = 0.0136985 common years

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Days to Years (Leap)

    Multiply by: 0.0027322

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 days to leap years.

    5 days = (5 0.0027322) leap years = 0.013661 leap years

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Days (Working)to Hours

    Multiply by: 8

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 working days to hours.

    5 working days = (5 8) hours = 40 hours

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Days (Working) to Hours (Working) weekly

    Multiply by: 40

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 working weeks to working hours.

    5 working weeks = (5 * 40) working hours = 200 working hours

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Decades to Years

    Multiply by: 10

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 decades to years.

    5 decades = (5 10) years = 50 years

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Decagrams to Grams

    Multiply by: 10

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 decagrams to grams.

    5 decagrams = (5 10) grams = 50 grams

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Decaliters to Liters

    Multiply by: 10

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 decaliters to liters.

    5 decaliters = (5 10) liters = 50 liters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Decameters to Meters

    Multiply by: 10

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 decameters to meters.

    5 decameters = (5 10) meters = 50 meters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Decigrams to Gram

    Multiply by: 0.10

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 decigrams to grams.

    5 decigrams = (5 0.10) grams = 0.50 grams

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Deciliters to Liters

    Multiply by: 0.10

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 decileters to liters.

    5 deciliters = (5 0.10) liters = 0.50 liters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Decimeters to Meters

    Multiply by: 0.10

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 decimeters to meters.

    5 decimeters = (5 0.10) meters = 0.50 meters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Degrees to Radians

    (Angular measure)

    Multiply by: 0.01745

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 degrees to radians.

    5 degrees = (5 0.01745) radians = 0.08725 radians

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Degrees (on Meridian) to Miles

    Multiply by: 69.16

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 degrees on meridian to miles.

    5 degrees on meridian = (5 69.16) miles = 345.8 miles

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Drams to Ounces

    (Avoirdupois Weight)<1><1>Multiply by: 0.0625

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 drams to ounces.

    5 drams = (5 0.0625) ounces = 0.3125 ounces

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Drams to Scruples

    (Apothecaries Weight)<1><1>Multiply by: 3

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 drams to scruples.

    5 drams = (5 3) scruples = 15 scruples

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Dynes to Grams

    Multiply by: 0.00102

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 dynes to grams.

    5 dynes = (5 0.00102) grams = 0.0051 grams

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Ephah (Biblical) to Liters

    Multiply by: 39.64

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 ephah to liters.

    5 ephah = (5 39.64) liters = 198.2 liters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Fahrenheit to Celsius

    Subtract: 32<1>then multiply by: 0.556

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius.

    5 degrees Fahrenheit = [(5-32)0.556] degrees Celsius = -15.012 degrees Celsius

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Fathoms to Feet

    Multiply by: 6

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 fathoms to feet.

    5 fathoms = (5 6) feet = 30 feet

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Feet to Inches

    Multiply by: 12

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 feet to inches.

    5 feet = (5 12) inches = 60 inches

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Feet to Furlongs

    Multiply by: 0.0015

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 feet to furlongs.

    5 feet = (5 0.0015) furlongs = 0.0075 furlongs

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Feet to Meters

    Multiply by: 0.3048

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 feet to meters.

    5 feet = (5 0.3048) meters = 1.524 meters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Feet to Miles (Nautical)

    Multiply by: 0.0001645

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 feet to nautical miles.

    5 feet = (5 0.0001645) nautical miles = 0.0008225 nautical miles

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Feet to Miles (Statute)

    Multiply by: 0.0001894

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 feet to miles.

    5 feet = (5 0.0001894) miles = 0.000947 miles

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Feet to Rods

    Multiply by: 0.061

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 feet to rods.

    5 feet = (5 0.061) rods = 0.305 rods

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Feet to Yards

    Multiply by: 0.333

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 feet to yards.

    5 feet = (5 0.333) yards = 1.665 yards

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Feet/Second to Miles/Hour

    Multiply by: 0.6818

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 feet/second to miles/hour.

    5 feet/second = (5 0.6818) miles/hour = 3.409 miles/hour

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Furlongs to Feet

    Multiply by: 660

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 furlongs to feet.

    5 furongs = (5 660) feet = 3300 feet

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Furlongs to Miles

    Multiply by: 0.125

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 furlongs to miles.

    5 furlongs = (5 0.125) miles = 0.625 miles

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Furlongs to Yards

    Multiply by: 216.66

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 furlongs to yards.

    5 furlongs = (5 216.66) yards = 1083.3 yards

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Gallons (US) to Barrels

    Multiply by: 0.031746

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 U.S. gallons to barrels.

    5 U.S. gallons = (5 0.031746) barrels = 0.15873 barrels

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Gallons (US) to Liters

    Multiply by: 3.7853

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 U.S. gallons to liters.

    5 U.S. gallons = (5 3.7853) liters = 18.9265 liters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Gallons (US) to Pints

    Multiply by: 8

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 U.S. gallons to pints.

    5 U.S. gallons = (5 8) pints = 40 pints

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Gallons (US) to Quarts

    Multiply by: 4

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 U.S. gallons to quarts.

    5 U.S. gallons = (5 4) quarts = 20 quarts

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Gills to Pints (Liquid Measure)

    Multiply by: 0.25

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 gills to pints.

    5 gills = (5 0.25) pints = 1.25 pints

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Grains to Grams

    Multiply by: 0.0648

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 grains to grams.

    5 grains = (5 0.0648) grams = 0.324 grams

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Grains to Pennyweights

    (Troy Weight)<1><1>Multiply by: 0.0416

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 grains to pennyweights.

    5 grains = (5 0.0416) pennyweights = 0.208 pennyweights

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Grains to Scruples

    (Apothecaries Weight)<1><1>Multiply by: 0.05

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 grains to scruples.

    5 grains = (5 0.05) scruples = 0.25 scruples

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Grams to Centigrams

    Multiply by: 100

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 grams to centigrams.

    5 grams = (5 100) centigrams = 500 centigrams

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Grams to Decagrams

    Multiply by: 0.10

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 grams to decagrams.

    5 grams = (5 0.10) decagrams = 0.50 decagrams

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Grams to Decigrams

    Multiply by: 10

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 grams to decigrams.

    5 grams = (5 10) decigrams = 50 decigrams

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Grams to Grains

    Multiply by: 15.4324

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 grams to grains.

    5 grams = (5 15.4324) grains = 77.162 grains

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Grams to Hectograms

    Multiply by: 0.01

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 grams to hectograms.

    5 grams = (5 0.01) hectograms = 0.05 hectograms

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Grams to Kilograms

    Multiply by: 0.001

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 grams to kilograms.

    5 grams = (5 0.001) kilograms = 0.005 kilograms

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Grams to Milligrams

    Multiply by: 1000

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 grams to milligrams.

    5 grams = (5 1000) milligrams = 5000 milligrams

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Grams to Ounces

    (Avoirdupois Weight)<1><1>Multiply by: 0.0353

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 grams to ounces.

    5 grams = (5 0.0353) ounces = 0.1765 ounces

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Grams to Pounds

    Multiply by: 0.002205

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 grams to pounds.

    5 grams = (5 0.002205) pounds = 0.011025 pounds

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Grams to Shekels

    (Biblical)<1><1>Multiply by: 0.07092

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 grams to shekels.

    5 grams = (5 0.07092) shekels = 0.3546 shekels

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Hectares to Acres

    Multiply by: 2.4710

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 hectares to acres.

    5 hectares = (5 2.4710) acres = 12.355 acres

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Hectograms to Grams

    Multiply by: 100

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 hectograms to grams.

    5 hectograms = (5 100) grams = 500 grams

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Hectoliters to Bushels (US)

    Multiply by: 2.8378

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 hectoliters to U.S. bushels.

    5 hectoliters = (5 2.8378) U.S. bushels = 14.189 U.S. bushels

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Hectoliters to Liters

    Multiply by: 100

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 hectoliters to liters.

    5 hectoliters = (5 100) liters = 500 liters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Hectometers to Meters

    Multiply by: 100

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 hectometers to meters.

    5 hectometers = (5 100) meters = 500 meters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Hogsheads to Barrels

    (Liquid Measure)<1><1>Multiply by: 2

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 hogsheads to barrels.

    5 hogsheads = (5 2) barrels = 10 barrels

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Horsepower to Watts

    Multiply by: 745.7

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 horsepower to watts.

    5 horsepower = (5 745.7) watts = 3728.5 watts

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Hours to Days

    Multiply by: 0.04167

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 hours to days.

    5 hours = (5 0.04167) days = 0.20835 days

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Hours to Days (Working)

    Multiply by: 0.125

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 hours to working days.

    5 hours = (5 0.125) working days = 0.625 working days

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Hours to Minutes

    Multiply by: 60

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 hours to minutes.

    5 hours = (5 60) minutes = 300 minutes

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Hours to Weeks (Working)

    Multiply by: 0.025

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 hours to working weeks.

    5 hours = (5 0.025) working weeks = 0.125 working weeks

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Hundredweights to Pounds

    (Troy Weight)<1><1>Multiply by: 100

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 hundredweights to pounds.

    5 hundredweights = (5 100) pounds = 500 pounds

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Inches to Centimeters

    Multiply by: 2.54

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 inches to centimeters.

    5 inches = (5 2.54) centimeters = 12.7 centimeters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Inches to Cubits (Biblical)

    Multiply by: 0.04587

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 inches to biblical cubits.

    5 inches = (5 0.04587) biblical cubits = 0.22935 biblical cubits

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Inches to Cubits (Greek)

    Multiply by: 0.05464

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 inches to Greek cubits.

    5 inches = (5 0.05464) Greek cubits = 0.2732 Greek cubits

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Inches to Cubits (Roman)

    Multiply by: 0.05714

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 inches to Roman cubits.

    5 inches = (5 0.05714) Roman cubits = 0.2857 Roman cubits

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Inches to Feet

    Multiply by: 0.0833

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 inches to feet.

    5 inches = (5 0.0833) feet = 0.4165 feet

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Inches to Meters

    Multiply by: 0.0254

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 inches to meters.

    5 inches = (5 0.0254) meters = 0.127 meters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Inches to Millimeters

    Multiply by: 25.4

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 inches to millimeters.

    5 inches = (5 25.4) millimeters = 127 millimeters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Kelvin to Celsius

    Subtract: 273

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 degrees Kelvin to degrees Celsius.

    5 degrees Kelvin = (5 - 273) degrees Kelvin = -268 degrees Celsius

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Kilograms to Grams

    Multiply by: 1000

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 kilograms to grams.

    5 kilograms = (5 1000) grams = 5000 grams

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Kilograms to Ounces

    Multiply by: 35.274

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 kilograms to ounces.

    5 kilograms = (5 35.274) ounces = 176.37 ounces

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Kilograms to Pounds

    Multiply by: 2.2046

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 kilograms to pounds.

    5 kilograms = (5 2.2046) pounds = 11.023 pounds

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Kiloliters to Liters

    Multiply by: 1000

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 kiloliters to liters.

    5 kiloliters = (5 1000) liters = 5000 liters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Kilometers to Meters

    Multiply by: 1000

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 kilometers to meters.

    5 kilometers = (5 1000) meters = 5000 meters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Kilometers to Miles

    Multiply by: 0.6214

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 kilometers to miles.

    5 kilometers = (5 0.6214) miles = 3.107 miles

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Kilowatts to Horsepower

    Multiply by: 1.341

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 kilowatts to horsepower.

    5 kilowatts = (5 1.341) horsepower = 6.705 horsepower

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Knots to Nautical Mph

    Multiply by: 1

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 knots to nautical mph.

    5 knots = (5 1) nautical mph = 5 nautical mph

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Knots to Statute Mph

    Multiply by: 1.151

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 knots to mph.

    5 knots = (5 1.151) mph = 5.755 mph

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Liters to Centiliters

    Multiply by: 100

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 liters to centiliters.

    5 liters = (5 100) centiliters = 500 centiliters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Liters to Decaliters

    Multiply by: 0.10

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 liters to decaliters.

    5 liters = (5 0.10) decaliters = 0.50 decaliters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Liters to Deciliters

    Multiply by: 10

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 liters to deciliters.

    5 liters = (5 10) deciliters = 50 deciliters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Liters to Ephah (Biblical)

    Multiply by: 0.025227

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 liters to ephah.

    5 liters = (5 0.025227) ephah = 0.126135 ephah

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Liters to Gallons (US)

    Multiply by: 0.2642

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 liters to U.S. gallons.

    5 liters = (5 0.2642) U.S. gallons = 1.321 U.S. gallons

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Liters to Hectoliters

    Multiply by: 0.01

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 liters to hectoliters.

    5 liters = (5 0.01) hectoliters = 0.05 hectoliters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Liters to Kiloliters

    Multiply by: 0.001

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 liters to kiloliters.

    5 liters = (5 0.001) kiloliters = 0.005 kiloliters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Liters to Milliliters

    Multiply by: 1000

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 liters to milliliters.

    5 liters = (5 1000) milliliters = 5000 milliliters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Liters to Omers (Biblical)

    Multiply by: 0.25227

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 liters to omers.

    5 liters = (5 0.25227) omers = 1.26135 omers

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Liters to Pecks

    Multiply by: 0.1135

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 liters to pecks.

    5 liters = (5 0.1135) pecks = 0.5675 pecks

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Liters to Pints (Dry)

    Multiply by: 1.8162

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 liters to dry pints.

    5 liters = (5 1.8162) dry pints = 9.081 dry pints

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Liters to Pints (Liquid)

    Multiply by: 2.1134

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 liters to liquid pints.

    5 liters = (5 2.1134) liquid pints = 10.567 liquid pints

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Liters to Quarts (Dry)

    Multiply by: 0.9081

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 liters to dry quarts.

    5 liters = (5 0.9081) dry quarts = 4.5405 dry quarts

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Liters to Quarts (Liquid)

    Multiply by: 1.0567

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 liters to liquid quarts.

    5 liters = (5 1.0567) liquid quarts = 5.2835 liquid quarts

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Meters to Centimeters

    Multiply by: 100

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 meters to centimeters.

    5 meters = (5 100) centimeters = 500 centimeters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Meters to Decameters

    Multiply by: 0.10

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 meters to decameters.

    5 meters = (5 0.10) decameters = 0.50 decameters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Meters to Decimeters

    Multiply by: 10

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 meters to decimeters.

    5 meters = (5 10) decimeters = 50 decimeters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Meters to Feet

    Multiply by: 3.2808

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 meters to feet.

    5 meters = (5 3.2808) feet = 16.404 feet

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Meters to Hectometers

    Multiply by: 0.01

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 meters to hectometers.

    5 meters = (5 0.01) hectometers = 0.05 hectometers

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Meters to Inches

    Multiply by: 39.37

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 meters to inches.

    5 meters = (5 39.37) inches = 196.85 inches

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Meters to Kilometers

    Multiply by: 0.001

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 meters to kilometers.

    5 meters = (5 0.001) kilometers = 0.005 kilometers

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Meters to Miles

    Multiply by: 0.0006214

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 meters to miles.

    5 meters = (5 0.0006214) miles = 0.003107 miles

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Meters to Millimeters

    Multiply by: 1000

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 meters to millimeters.

    5 meters = (5 1000) millimeters = 5000 millimeters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Meters to Yards

    Multiply by: 1.0936

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 meters to yards.

    5 meters = (5 1.0936) yards = 5.468 yards

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Metric Tons to Tons (Long)

    Multiply by: 0.9842

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 metric tons to long tons.

    5 metric tons = (5 0.9842) long tons = 4.921 long tons

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Metric Tons to Tons (Short)

    Multiply by: 1.1023

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 metric tons to tons.

    5 metric tons = (5 1.1023) tons = 5.5115 tons

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Miles to Degrees (on Meridian)

    Multiply by: 0.0144592

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 miles to degrees on meridian.

    5 miles = (5 0.0144592) degrees on meridian = 0.072296 degrees on meridian

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Miles to Feet

    Multiply by: 5280

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 miles to feet.

    5 miles = (5 5280) feet = 26,400 feet

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Miles to Kilometers

    Multiply by: 1.6093

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 miles to kilometers.

    5 miles = (5 1.6093) kilometers = 8.0465 kilometers

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Miles (Nautical) to Miles (Statute)

    Multiply by: 1.1516

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 nautical miles to miles.

    5 nautical miles = (5 1.1516) miles = 5.758 miles

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Miles (Statute) to Miles (Nautical)

    Multiply by: 0.8684

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 miles to nautical miles.

    5 miles = (5 0.8684) nautical miles = 4.342 nautical miles

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Miles/Hour to Feet/Minute

    Multiply by: 88

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 miles/hour to feet/minute.

    5 miles/hour = (5 88) feet/minute = 440 feet/minute

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Milligrams to Grams

    Multiply by: 0.001

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 milligrams to grams.

    5 milligrams = (5 0.001) grams = 0.005 grams

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Milliliters to Liters

    Multiply by: 0.001

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 milliliters to liters.

    5 milliliters = (5 0.001) liters = 0.005 liters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Millimeters to Inches

    Multiply by: 0.0394

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 millimeters to inches.

    5 millimeters = (5 0.0394) inches = 0.197 inches

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Millimeters to Meters

    Multiply by: 0.001

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 millimeters to meters.

    5 millimeters = (5 0.001) meters = 0.005 meters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Minutes to Hours

    Multiply by: 0.01667

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 minutes to hours.

    5 minutes = (5 0.01667) hours = 0.08335 hours

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Minutes to Seconds

    Multiply by: 60

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 minutes to seconds.

    5 minutes = (5 60) seconds = 300 seconds

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Months (Calendar) to Days

    Multiply by: 30

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 calendar months to days.

    5 calendar months = (5 30) days = 150 days

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Months (Calendar) to Hours

    Multiply by: 720

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 calendar months to hours.

    5 calendar months = (5 720) hours = 3600 hours

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Months (Calendar) to Minutes

    Multiply by: 43,200

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 calendar months to minutes.

    5 calendar months = (5 43,200) minutes = 216,000 minutes

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Months (Calendar) to Seconds

    Multiply by: 2,592,000

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 calendar months to seconds.

    5 calendar months = (5 2,592,000) seconds = 12,960,000 seconds

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Months to Years

    Multiply by: 0.0833

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 months to years.

    5 months = (5 0.0833) years = 0.4165 years

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Omers (Biblical) to Liters

    Multiply by: 3.964

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 omers to liters.

    5 omers = (5 3.964) liters = 19.82 liters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Ounces to Drams

    (Avoirdupois Weight)<1><1>Multiply by: 16

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 ounces to drams.

    5 ounces = (5 16) drams = 80 drams

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Ounces to Grams

    (Avoirdupois Weight)<1><1>Multiply by: 28.3495

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 ounces to grams.

    5 ounces = (5 28.3495) grams = 141.7475 grams

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Ounces to Pennyweights

    (Troy Weight)<1><1>Multiply by: 20

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 ounces to pennyweights.

    5 ounces = (5 20) pennyweights = 100 pennyweights

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Ounces to Pounds

    Multiply by: 0.0625

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 ounces to pounds.

    5 ounces = (5 0.0625) pounds = 0.3125 pounds

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Ounces to Shekels

    (Biblical)<1><1>Multiply by: 2.012

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 ounces to shekels.

    5 ounces = (5 2.012) shekels = 10.06 shekels

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Ounces (Troy) to Ounces

    (Avoirdupois Weight)<1><1>Multiply by: 1.09714

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 Troy ounces to ounces.

    5 Troy ounces = (5 1.09714) ounces = 5.4857 ounces

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Pecks to Bushels

    Multiply by: 0.25

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 pecks to bushels.

    5 pecks = (5 0.25) bushels = 1.25 bushels

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Pecks to Liters

    Multiply by: 8.8096

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 pecks to liters.

    5 pecks = (5 8.8096) liters = 44.048 liters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Pecks to Quarts

    (Dry Measure)<1><1>Multiply by: 8

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 pecks to quarts.

    5 pecks = (5 8) quarts = 40 quarts

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Pennyweights to Grains

    (Troy Weight)<1><1>Multiply by: 24

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 pennyweights to grains.

    5 pennyweights = (5 24) grains = 120 grains

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Pennyweights to Ounces

    (Troy Weight)<1><1>Multiply by: 0.05

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 pennyweights to ounces.

    5 pennyweights = (5 0.05) ounces = 0.25 ounces

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Perches to Cubic Feet

    Multiply by: 24.75

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 perches to cubic feet.

    5 perches = (5 24.75) cubic feet = 123.75 cubic feet

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Pints to Gallons

    Multiply by: 0.125

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 pints to gallons.

    5 pints = (5 0.125) gallons = 0.625 gallons

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Pints to Gills

    (Liquid Measure)<1><1>Multiply by: 4

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 pints to gills.

    5 pints = (5 4) gills = 20 gills

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Pints (Dry) to Liters

    Multiply by: 0.5506

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 dry pints to liters.

    5 dry pints = (5 0.5506) liters = 2.753 liters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Pints (Liquid) to Liters

    Multiply by: 0.4732

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 liquid pints to liters.

    5 liquid pints = (5 0.4732) liters = 2.366 liters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Pints to Quarts

    Multiply by: 0.5

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 pints to quarts.

    5 pints = (5 0.5) quarts = 2.5 quarts

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Pounds to Hundredweights

    (Avoirdupois Weight)<1><1>Multiply by: 0.01

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 pounds to hundredweights.

    5 pounds = (5 0.01) hundredweights = 0.05 hundredweights

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Pounds (AP or T) to Kilograms

    (Apothecaries or Troy Weight)<1><1>Multiply by: 0.3782

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 pounds to kilograms.

    5 pounds = (5 0.3782) kilograms = 1.891 kilograms

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Pounds to Kilograms

    (Avoirdupois Weight)<1><1>Multiply by: 0.4536

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 pounds to kilograms.

    5 pounds = (5 0.4536) kilograms = 2.268 kilograms

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Pounds to Ounces

    Multiply by: 16

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 pounds to ounces.

    5 pounds = (5 16) ounces = 80 ounces

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Pounds to Tons

    Multiply by: 0.0005

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 pounds to tons.

    5 pounds = (5 0.0005) tons = 0.0025 tons

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Pounds to Tons (Long)

    Multiply by: 0.000446428

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 pounds to long tons.

    5 pounds = (5 0.000446428) long tons = 0.00223214 long tons

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Quarts to Gallons

    Multiply by: 0.25

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 quarts to gallons.

    5 quarts = (5 0.25) gallons = 1.25 gallons

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Quarts (Dry) to Liters

    Multiply by: 1.1012

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 dry quarts to liters.

    5 dry quarts = (5 1.1012) liters = 5.506 liters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Quarts (Liquid) to Liters

    Multiply by: 0.9463

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 liquid quarts to liters.

    5 liquid quarts = (5 0.9463) liters = 4.7315 liters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Quarts to Pecks

    (Dry Measure)<1><1>Multiply by: 0.125

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 quarts to pecks.

    5 quarts = (5 0.125) pecks = 0.625 pecks

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Quarts to Pints

    Multiply by: 2

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 quarts to pints.

    5 quarts = (5 2) pints = 10 pints

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Quires to Reams (Classic)

    (Paper Measure)<1><1>Multiply by: 0.05

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 quires to classic reams.

    5 quires = (5 0.05) classic reams = 0.25 classic reams

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Quires to Reams (Common)

    (Paper Measure)<1><1>Multiply by: 0.048

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 quires to common reams.

    5 quires = (5 0.048) common reams = 0.24 common reams

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Quires to Sheets

    (Paper Measure)<1><1>Multiply by: 24

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 quires to sheets.

    5 quires = (5 24) sheets = 120 sheets

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Radians to Degrees

    (Angular Measure)

    Multiply by: 57.3

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 radians to degrees.

    5 radians = (5 57.3) degrees = 286.5 degrees

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Reams to Bales (Paper Measure)<1><1>Multiply by: .1

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 classic reams to bales.

    5 classic reams = (5 .1) bales = .5 bales

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Reams (Classic) to Quires

    (Paper Measure)<1><1>Multiply by: 20

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 classic reams to quires.

    5 classic reams = (5 20) quires = 100 quires

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Reams (Classic) to Sheets

    (Paper Measure)<1><1>Multiply by: 480

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 classic reams to sheets.

    5 classic reams = (5 480) sheets = 2400 sheets

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Reams (Common) to Sheets

    (Paper Measure)<1><1>Multiply by: 500

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 common reams to sheets.

    5 common reams = (5 500) sheets = 2500 sheets

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Rods to Feet

    Multiply by: 16.5

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 rods to feet.

    5 rods = (5 16.5) feet = 82.5 feet

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Rods to Meters

    Multiply by: 5.029

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 rods to meters.

    5 rods = (5 5.029) meters = 25.145 meters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Rods to Yards

    Multiply by: 5.5

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 rods to yards.

    5 rods = (5 5.5) yards = 27.5 yards

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Scruples to Drams

    (Apothecaries Weight)<1><1>Multiply by: 0.333

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 scruples to drams.

    5 scruples = (5 0.333) drams = 1.665 drams

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Scruples to Grains

    (Apothecaries Weight)<1><1>Multiply by: 20

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 scruples to grains.

    5 scruples = (5 20) grains = 100 grains

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Seconds to Minutes

    Multiply by: 0.01667

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 seconds to minutes.

    5 seconds = (5 0.01667) minutes = 0.08335 minutes

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Sheets to Quire

    (Paper Measure)<1><1>Multiply by: 0.04167

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 sheets to quires.

    5 sheets = (5 0.04167) quires = 0.20835 quires

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Sheets to Reams (Classic)

    (Paper Measure)<1><1>Multiply by: 0.002083

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 sheets to classic reams.

    5 sheets = (5 0.002083) classic reams = 0.010415 classic reams

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Sheets to Reams (Common)

    (Paper Measure)<1><1>Multiply by: 0.002

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 sheets to common reams.

    5 sheets = (5 0.002) common reams = 0.01 common reams

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Shekels to Grams

    (Biblical)<1><1>Multiply by: 14.1

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 shekels to grams.

    5 shekels = (5 14.1) grams = 70.5 grams

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Shekels to Ounces

    (Biblical)<1><1>Multiply by: 0.497

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 shekels to ounces.

    5 shekels = (5 0.497) ounces = 2.485 ounces

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Square Feet to Square Meters

    Multiply by: 0.0929

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 square feet to square meters.

    5 square feet = (5 0.0929) square meters = 0.4645 square meters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Square Kilometers to Square Miles

    Multiply by: 0.3861

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 square kilometers to square miles.

    5 square kilometers = (5 0.3861) square miles = 1.9305 square miles

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Square Meters to Square Feet

    Multiply by: 10.7639

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 square meters to square feet.

    5 square meters = (5 10.7639) square feet = 53.8195 square feet

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Square Meters to Square Yards

    Multiply by: 1.196

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 square meters to square yards.

    5 square meters = (5 1.196) square yards = 5.98 square yards

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Square Miles to Square Kilometers

    Multiply by: 2.59

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 square miles to square kilometers.

    5 square miles = (5 2.59) square kilometers = 12.95 square kilometers

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Square Yards to Square Meters

    Multiply by: 0.8361

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 square yards to square meters.

    5 square yards = (5 0.8361) square meters = 4.1805 square meters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Tons (Long) to Metric Tons

    Multiply by: 1.016

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 long tons to metric tons.

    5 long tons = (5 1.016) metric tons = 5.08 metric tons

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Tons (Short) to Metric Tons

    Multiply by: 0.9072

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 tons to metric tons.

    5 tons = (5 0.9072) metric tons = 4.536 metric tons

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Tons to Pounds

    Multiply by: 2000

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 tons to pounds.

    5 tons = (5 2000) pounds = 10,000 pounds

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Tons (Long) to Pounds

    Multiply by: 2240

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 long tons to pounds.

    5 long tons = (5 2240) pounds = 11,200 pounds

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Watts to BTU/Hour

    Multiply by: 3.4129

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 watts to BTU/hour.

    5 watts = (5 3.4129) BTU/hour = 17.0645 BTU/hour

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Watts to Horsepower

    Multiply by: 0.001341

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 watts to horsepower.

    5 watts = ( 5 0.001341) horsepower = 0.006705 horsepower

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Weeks to Days

    Multiply by: 7

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 weeks to days.

    5 weeks = (5 7) days = 35 days.

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Yards to Feet

    Multiply by: 3

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 yards to feet.

    5 yards = (5 3) feet = 15 feet

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Yards to Meters

    Multiply by: 0.9144

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 yards to meters.

    5 yards = (5 0.9144) meters = 4.572 meters

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Yards to Miles

    Multiply by: 0.0005682

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 yards to miles.

    5 yards = (5 0.0005682) miles = 0.002841 miles

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Yards to Rods

    Multiply by: 0.18

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 yards to rods.

    5 yards = (5 0.18) rods = 0.9 rods

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Years to Centuries

    Multiply by: 0.01

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 years to centuries.

    5 years = (5 0.01) centuries = 0.05 centuries

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Years to Decades

    Multiply by: 0.1

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 years to decades.

    5 years = (5 0.1) decades = 0.5 decades

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Years (Common) to Days

    Multiply by: 365

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 common years to days.

    5 common years = (5 365) days = 1825 days

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Years (Common) to Hours

    Multiply by: 8760

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 common years to hours.

    5 common years = (5 8760) hours = 43,800 hours

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Years (Common) to Minutes

    Multiply by: 525,600

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 common years to minutes.

    5 common years = (5 525,600) milutes = 2,628,000 minutes

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Years (Common) to Seconds

    Multiply by: 31,536,000

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 common years to seconds.

    5 common years = (5 31,536,000) seconds = 157,680,000 seconds

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Years (Leap) to Days

    Multiply by: 366

    EXAMPLE: Convert 5 leap years to days.

    5 leap years = (5 366) days = 1830 days

    "0ef7">Convert Now!

    Escape Velocity

    Escape velocity is the minimum speed an object must attain in order to free itself from the gravitational influence of the planet (to escape orbit).

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    Absolute zero is defined as zero degrees Kelvin but is also a theoretical state of matter, where the individual atoms cease to move.

    The Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases

    Arrhenius proposed that an acid be defined as a molecule or ion that can release a proton in solution. And a base to be a molecule or ion that can accept a proton in solution.

    HCl, H2SO4 and HCOOH are all able to release a proton (H+) and can therefore be classified as acids. While OH-, CN- and NH2- fall within the classification of bases.

    Actinides

    Actinides are the fourteen elements in the bottom row of the inner-transition elements of the periodic table that follow the element actinium (Ac #89). This series is a sub-series of the transition metals.

    Activation Energy

    Activation energy is the minimum energy required to start a chemical reaction

    Alkali Earth Metal

    Alkali Earth Metals are the elements in the second column of the periodic table. These elements are in general white, differing by shades of color or casts; they are malleable, extrudable and machinable. These elements may be made into rods, wire or plate. Also, these elements are less reactive than the alkali metals and have higher melting points and boiling points.

    Alkali Metal

    Alkali metal is a metal in the first column of the periodic table (i.e., lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium and francium). With the exception of francium, these metals are all soft and silvery. They may be readily fused and volatilized with their melting and boiling points becoming lower with increasing atomic mass. They are the strongest electropositive metals. These elements react vigorously, even violently with water.

    Anion

    An anion is a negatively charged ion.

    Antimatter (antiparticle):

    Antimatter is a species of subatomic particles that have the same mass and spin as normal particles, however, they have opposite electrical charges from their normal matter counterparts. In the case of antineutrons they are opposite of neutrons in magnetic moment. Positrons, which are the counterpart to electrons, have a positive charge and antiprotons have a negative charge. Photons are their own antimatter counterpart. When a particle of matter collides with a particle of antimatter, both particles are destroyed and their masses are converted to photons of equivalent energy.

    Atom

    An atom is the smallest possible unit of matter that still maintains an element's identity during chemical reactions. Atoms contain one or more protons and neutrons (except hydrogen (H), which normally contains no neutrons) in a nucleus around which one or more electrons revolve.

    Atomic Mass (Atomic Mass Average)

    Atomic mass is the average mass of all nuclides of an element determined by the proportions in which each nuclide of the element are present within the earth and its atmosphere.

    Atomic Mass Unit (AMU)

    Atomic mass unit is a mass unit that is exactly 1/12th the mass of a carbon 12 atom. <1r> <1r>

    Atomic Number

    Atomic number is the integer that you find in each box of the Periodic Chart. The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of each atom.

    Atomic Weight

    Atomic weight is the number of protons plus the average number of neutrons in that element.

    Avogadro's Number

    See "08bf">Moles

    Boiling Point

    Boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to or slightly greater than the atmospheric pressure of the environment. For water at sea level, its boiling point is 100C (212F).

    Bond Energy

    The quantity of energy released as bonds are produced between atoms. Bond energy is the same as dissociation energy.

    Catalyst

    Any substance that changes the rate of a reaction without being used up. Catalysts function by affecting the reaction barrier (providing an alternate reaction mechanism or inhibiting the one already present).

    Cation

    A cation is a positively charged ion.

    Chemical Equations

    Chemical equations show what reacts with what, what new substances are formed, and their reacting ratios.

    Chemical Formulas

    Chemical formulas show which elements are present and their ratios.

    Chemical Properties

    Chemical properties are such things as reactivity, oxidation states, flammability, and corrosiveness.

    Chemical Symbols

    Chemical symbols are abbreviations for the elements.

    Chemiluminescence

    Chemiluminescence is the emission of absorbed energy as light as the result of a chemical reaction. This occurs in thousands of compounds both organic and inorganic. Chemical glow sticks and fireflies are examples of this.

    Colloid

    A mixture composed of a suspended and a mobile phase.

    Colligative Property

    The colligative property is only affected by the number of particles present. Chemical composition has no effect.

    Compound

    A compound is two or more elements chemically combined.

    Covalent Bond

    The sharing of one or more electron pairs between nuclei. Covalent bonding usually occurs when the electronegativity difference between bonding species is less than 1.5.

    Decomposition

    Decomposition is a reaction where a single compound breaks down into simpler compounds.

    Density

    Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance.

    Diatomic

    Diatomic elements are elements that are present in the gaseous state as molecules composed of two atoms.

    For example: O2, N2, Cl2 and H2.

    Dissociation

    Dissociation is the separation of particles from the bulk or mass substance.

    Dissociation Energy

    The energy required for separation of atoms from one another within a molecule. Dissociation energy is the same as the bond energy.

    Electron

    Electrons are particles of matter that have a negative electric charge. They can be found as a constituent part of an atom orbiting around the nucleus or in the free state. Electrons are arranged around the nucleus of an atom in from one to seven orbitals with the number of electrons in each orbital strictly limited by the laws of physics.

    Electronegativity

    Electronegativity is the measure of the ability of an atom in a molecule to draw bonding electrons to itself. This is partially determined by how many electron vacancies are available in an element's filling orbital. The most electronegative elements are the halogens, which have only one vacancy (i.e. have seven electrons in their filling orbital). Sulfur and oxygen are also highly electronegative.

    Element

    Elements are one of the 116 presently known substances that cannot be decomposed by chemical reaction into a simpler substance. Elements comprise all matter at and above the atomic level. All elements heavier than lead (Pb) are radioactive and unstable. In addition, there are no stable elements with odd numbers of both protons and neutrons heavier than nitrogen (N). Elements with even numbers of protons and an even number of neutrons make up about 90% of the earth's crust.

    Empirical Formula

    The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of elements in a compound, i.e. CH2.

    Endothermic Reaction

    An endothermic reaction requires more energy to start the reaction than it gives back. It needs energy to keep it going. An example is cooking.

    Energy Levels (electron shells, shells):

    Energy levels are the possible locations around an atom where electrons having specific energy values may be found. The term shell has been replaced with the term energy levels because the term shell insinuated that electrons circled the atom in fixed orbits like planets circle the sun. This model however is incorrect and outdated. Although the term shell is outdated, it is still often used grade school and high school science classes, as its concepts are less intimidating than are the use of terms like quantum number.

    Enthalpy

    Enthalpy is the heat of reaction, either exo- or endothermic. It is measured either in kilocalories/mole or kilojoules/mole.

    Exothermic Reaction

    An exothermic reaction produces more energy than was put in to the reaction. It keeps going after it is started. An example is a fire.

    Fahrenheit

    Fahrenheit is the temperature scale where 32 degrees is the freezing point of water and 212 degrees at 760mm Hg (sea level) is the boiling point of water. This scale is named for G. D. Fahrenheit (1686-1736), the German physicist, who invented it and was the individual who introduced the use of mercury (Hg) instead of alcohol in thermometers.

    See also "0137">Temperature Conversions.

    Filling Orbital

    The filling orbital is the orbital of an element that is only partially filled with electrons when an atom is at a neutral state electrically.

    First Ionization Potential (first ionization energy)

    The first ionization potential is the minimum amount of energy needed to remove the outermost (highest energy) electron from a neutral atom in the gaseous state.

    Formula Weight (molecular weight)

    The formula weight is the most general term that includes atomic weight and molecular weight. The atomic weights of the elements in the compound are added together to get the molecular weight. <1>Example: CuSO45H2O is copper II sulfate pentahydrate. The formula has one copper atom, one sulfur atom, nine oxygen atoms, and ten hydrogen atoms. To get the formula weight of this compound add up the atomic weights of the elements.

    Fractional Distillation

    The process used to separate individual components of solutions by using the difference in their boiling points.

    Freezing Point

    see "0e11">melting point.

    Group

    Groups are the vertical columns into which elements are arranged in the periodic table of elements. There are three common numbering systems for these groups:

    The new IUPAC system numbers each column with Arabic numbers from 1 (one) through 18 (eighteen). To reduce confusion caused by the other two systems, this is the system that is used in articles on this web site.

    The old IUPAC system labeled columns with Roman numerals followed by either the letter 'A' or 'B'. Columns were numbed such that columns one through seven were numbered 'IA' through 'VIIA', columns 8 through 10 were labeled 'VIIIA', columns 11 through 17 were numbered 'IB' through 'VIIB' and column 18 was numbered 'VIII'.

    Elements are arranged in these groups according to whose proprieties are similar.

    Half-life

    Half-life is the time it takes for one-half of the atoms of an unstable element or nuclide to decay radioactively into another element or nuclide

    Halogens

    Halogens are the reactive nonmetals that are in Group 17 of the periodic table. All of these elements are electronegative.

    Heat of Fusion

    Heat of fusion is the heat required to convert a solid into a liquid with no temperature change. This is also called the latent heat of fusion or melting.

    Heat of Vaporization

    Heat of vaporization is the heat required to convert a substance from the liquid to the gaseous state with no temperature change. This is also called the latent heat of vaporization.

    Henderson-Hasselbach Equation "0ef8"<1>

    Where [base] is the concentration of the base and [acid] is the concentration of the acid.

    Heterogeneous

    Heterogeneous mixtures or materials consist of more than one substance. The earth's atmosphere is heterogeneous in that it typically consists of 20.7% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, 0.93% argon and 0.03% CO2 with other gasses making up the remaining percentage.

    Homogeneous

    Homogeneous substances or materials contain only one kind of compound or one element. An example of a homogeneous substance would be pure water, which only contains the compound H2O or pure table salt that only contains the compound NaCl.

    Hydrogen Bond

    A hydrogen bond exists between the hydrogen atom in one molecule (like water) and the oxygen atom in another molecule (like another water molecule). The hydrogen bond is responsible for waters unusual properties of a high boiling point, high melting point, high surface tension, and its formation of the six- sided ring structure in ice. The latter causes water to expand upon freezing, become less dense, and float in water.

    Indicator

    A chemical which changes properties (usually color) under certain chemical conditions, usually pH. The most commonly used indicator is litmus paper, which changes to the color red in acidic conditions and blue when it is basic.

    Inert Gasses

    see "0e1b">Noble Gases.

    Inner-Transition Metals

    Inner-transition metals are the thirty elements of the Lanthanides and Actinides series, which are sub-series of the Transition Metals.

    Inert

    Inert refers to a chemically inactive element, compound or material. Because of their extremely low chemical activity the noble gasses are considered to be inert substances. This term is also used for substances that are added to mixtures, primarily for their bulk and weight.

    Ion

    An ion is an atom that has gained or lost one or more electrons and thus has either a positive (cation) or negative (anion) charge.

    "0ef9">Common Ions in Chemistry

    Ionic Bond

    An ionic bond is formed when a transfer of electrons occurs between a metal and a nonmetal, usually a halogen. Electron transfer usually occurs when the electronegativity difference between bonding species is 1.5 or more.

    Ionization Energies

    The ionization energy of an element is the amount of energy needed to remove an electron from the element to an infinite distance. This energy is dependent upon how strongly the electron is attracted to the nucleus.

    The first ionization energy is that amount of energy needed to remove the first electron.

    The second ionization energy is the amount of energy needed to remove a second electron.

    Irreversible Reaction

    A spontaneous reaction for which the directional flow is to the right, the products are greater than the reactants.

    Isotopes

    Isotopes are the same elements with different mass numbers. This is the result of having a different number of neutrons in the nucleus.

    Kelvin (absolute temperature)

    Kelvin is the temperature scale used in chemistry, physics and some engineering calculations. Zero degrees Kelvin (-273 centigrade) is the temperature at which all thermal motion ceases. To convert from Kelvin into centigrade subtract 273 from the Kelvin temperature.

    See also "0137">Temperature Conversions.

    Kinetic Energy

    Kinetic energy is the energy associated with an object because of its motion.

    Kinetic-Molecular Theory (kinetic theory)

    The kinetic-molecular theory is the theory that states a gas consists of molecules in constant random motion.

    Lanthanides (rare earth metals)

    Lanthanides are the fourteen elements of the upper row on the inner-transition metals on the periodic table that follow the element lanthanum (#57). This series is a sub-series of the transition metals.

    Law of Conservation of Energy

    The law of conservation of energy states that energy cant be destroyed or created, but only changed in form. <1>Ex. heat --> electricity --> light, etc.

    Law of Conservation of Matter

    The law of conservation of matter states that matter cant be created nor destroyed, but only changed in form. For example matter and mass can be interchanged.

    Law of Multiple Proportions

    The law of multiple proportions states that some compounds have formulas that are whole number multiples of atoms Ex. NO2, N2O4; H2O, H2O2; FeO, Fe2O3.

    Mass Spectrometer

    Is a machine in which the masses of particles, ions, and isotopes are measured. It separates isotopes according to charge and mass.

    Melting Point (freezing point)

    Melting point is the point at which the crystals of a pure substance are in equilibrium with the liquid phase at atmospheric pressure. This point is commonly referred to as melting point when a substance is approaching it from its solid state and is referred to as freezing point when a substance is approaching it from its liquid state.

    Metals

    Metals are the elements that form cations when compounds of composed of it are in solution and oxides of the elements form hydroxides rather than acids in water. Most metals are conductors of electricity, have crystalline solids with a metallic luster and have a high chemical reactivity. Many of these elements are hard and have high physical strength. The metal series includes all elements of the alkali, alkali-earth, inner-transition (lanthanides and actinides series), transactinides and transition series as well as some elements of the metalloid series (elements: Ge, Sb and Po).

    Metalloid

    Metalloid refers to elements that exhibit some properties of metals and nonmetals. These elements tend to be semiconductors. Silicon is an extremely important example of these elements. Without the semiconductive properties of silicon you would not be reading this text right now as most microchips and microprocessors are made with silicon and without these processors computers as we now know them would not exist.

    Molality

    Molality is the concentration in moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.

    Molarity

    Molarity is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution. Molarity is written as mol/L.

    Molecular Formula

    The molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms in a compound. Ex. C2H4

    Molecular Mass

    The molecular mass is the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule.

    Molecule

    A molecule is the smallest particle of a chemical compound. It contains two or more atoms.

    Monatomic

    Monatomic refers to elements that are present in the gaseous state as single atoms. These elements are the noble gasses: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn.

    Neutron

    A neutron is a neutrally charged particle of equal mass to a proton and is located within the nucleus of an atom. Most elements have equal numbers of neutrons to protons.

    Noble Gases

    The noble gases are a group of elements, which are gaseous at room temperature and pressure, and called "noble" because they rarely bond with other elements. This results from the fact that their electronic configurations consist of completely filled sublevels.

    Normality

    Normality is the number of moles of equivalents of material per liter. In acid-base titrations, the hydroxide ion of bases and the hydrogen ions of acids is the effective material. Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) has two ionizable hydrogens per formula of acid, or one mol of acid has two mols of ionizable hydrogen. 0.6 M H2SO4 is the same concentration as 1.2 N H2SO4.

    Nucleon

    Nucleon refers to the particles in the nucleus-- Protons and Neutrons.

    Orbitals

    Orbitals are the probability distributions of where electrons may be found in their atoms, s -orbitals are spherical, p - orbitals are dumbbell shaped.

    Oxidation

    Oxidation is any process that involves the loss of electrons (i.e., an increase in oxidation number).

    Oxidation Numbers(Valences)

    Oxidation numbers are the number or electrons lost, gained or shared in a chemical reaction. Free elements have zero as an oxidation number.

    Pauli Exclusion Principle

    The Pauli Exclusion principle states that no two electrons may have the same quantum numbers. Only two electrons may occupy an orbital, but they must have opposite spins.

    Percentage Composition

    The percentage composition can be found by totaling the atomic masses of the atoms in the molecular formula, and then dividing each individual mass by the total mass, and changing the results to a percentage.

    Periodic Law

    The periodic law states that electron configuration of the atoms of the elements vary periodically with their atomic number. Consequently, all properties of the elements that depend on their electron configuration tend also to change with the increasing atomic number in a periodic manner.

    Periodic Table

    The periodic table is an arrangement of elements in a geometric pattern designed to represent the periodic law by aligning elements into periods and groups. Elements with the same number of orbitals are in the same period and elements with the same number of electrons in the filling orbital and have other similar properties are in the same group.

    See also "0148">Visual Periodic Table.

    Periods

    The periods are defined by the number of energy levels of electrons surrounding the nucleus.

    pH

    A pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, and is used to determine how acidic or basic a substance is. The pH of a substance is determined by taking the negative of the logarithm of the molar hydrogen-ion concentration (pH=-log [H+]). Pure water has a pH of 7. Substances with a pH less than 7 are acids and substances with a pH greater than 7 are bases.

    Physical Properties

    Physical properties of elements and compounds are such things color, density, hardness, ductility, malleability, solubility, heat conduction, electrical properties, melting and boiling point.

    Positron

    A positron is a positively charged particle of antimatter that has the same mass and spin of an electron.

    Proton

    A proton is a particle of matter with a positive electrical charge. Although a proton has a mass 1837 times greater than an electron, it is nearly identical in mass to a neutron. Protons are constituents of the nuclei of all elements and an elements atomic number is dependent upon how many protons an element has.

    Quantum Numbers

    Quantum numbers describe the distance, shape, and orientation of the electron orbitals.

    Radioactivity

    Radioactivity is defined as the spontaneous emission of radiation and atomic particles from unstable elements. Radioactivity is measured in terms of half-lives and is not affected by physical state or chemical combination.

    Rare Earth Metals

    see "0e0c">Lanthanides.

    Rate Determining Step

    The slow step in a reaction mechanism, which is responsible for controlling the rate of the reaction.

    Reduction

    Reduction is any process that involves the gain of electrons (i.e., a decrease in oxidation number).

    Reversible Reaction

    A reversible reaction is a non-spontaneous reaction, which proceeds at equilibrium. The products and reactants are formed in equal proportions in a reversible reaction.

    Saturation Point

    The solution reaches a point called the saturation point when no more solute will dissolve into the solvent. Any further addition of solute will result in solid solute mixed in with the saturated solution. Each solvent and solute pair has a characteristic solubility at a given temperature. If the temperature is increased a greater amount of solute will dissolve into the solvent.

    Solubility

    Solubility is the amount of solute than can be dissolved in a solvent. Factors that affect solubility are temperature, molecular size, and the polarity of the solvent and solute.

    See "0e30">Saturation point.

    See "0e35">Supersaturation.

    Solvent

    A solvent is a substance that is used to dissolve or disperse another substance ("084e">solute).

    Specific Heat

    Specific Heat is the ratio of heat capacity of a substance to the heat capacity of water. Another way of looking at it is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree centigrade or one degree "0e09">Kelvin.

    Spectroscopy

    Spectroscopy is the analysis of the lines of light emitted from excited atoms as the electrons drop back through their "0e1e">orbitals. These lines give the energy and distances of the electronic orbitals.

    Supersaturation

    A solution becomes supersaturated when the amount of "084e">solute in the solution is past the saturation point. Supersaturation is an unstable condition. If any crystal is presented to a supersaturated solution, the crystallization of the solute onto it will occur rapidly.

    Transactinides

    Transactinides are all elements that follow the Actinides. As with all elements larger than uranium (U), these elements can only be produced in nuclear reactors or particle accelerators. Some of these elements of the transactinides are commonly lumped with metals. In general these elements are known for their hardness, high density, high melting point and boiling point and heat conduction although there are exceptions.

    Transition Metals

    Transition metals are all elements in the sub-series Lanthanides and Actinides.

    Van der Waals Forces

    Van der Waals Forces are weak interactions between molecules. These weak forces are caused by the attraction between protons in one molecule and electrons in an adjacent molecule.

    Vapor Pressure

    The vapor pressure is the pressure exerted when a material is in its solid or liquid state and is in equilibrium with its gas state. This changes as a function of temperature, vapor pressure must be qualified by the relevant temperature.

    Volatile

    Volatile is defined as a substance that readily passes into the gas state at a relatively low temperature.

    Volatility

    Volatility is the tendency of a material to pass into the gas state at a particular temperature from a solid or liquid state.

    X-rays

    X-rays are electromagnetic radiation emissions above Ultra Violet light in frequency. They are produced when electrons strike a metal target. X-rays are used to determine the atomic number of elements and the structure of crystals.

    Oxidation State

    The oxidation state refers to the oxidation number which is the number or electrons lost, gained or shared in a chemical reaction. Free elements have zero as an oxidation number.

    Mass

    A measure of the amount of matter of an object.

    Mass Number

    The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. This is measured in atomic mass units (AMU).

    Moment of Inertia

    The property that resists rotational motion when a torque is applied to a body.

    Momentum

    The product of mass and velocity.

    Muon

    The muon is a high energy analog to the electron with a mass approximately 200 times greater than an electron.

    Neutrino

    A subatomic particle having a mass approaching zero, no charge, that has little interaction with matter.

    Neutron

    One of the elementary particles of an atom, neutrons are uncharged and have approximately that same mass as a proton.

    Neutron Number

    The number of neutrons in a given nucleus, it is the difference between the mass number and the atomic number.

    Node

    The point of no disturbance in a standing wave.

    Normal Force

    A force perpendicular to the surface of an object.

    Paramagnetic Substance

    A substance that is weakly attracted by a magnet.

    Period of a Wave

    The time for one complete cycle, resolution, vibration, or oscillation.

    Periodic Wave

    A wave that is repeated in each of a succession of equal time intervals.

    Phase

    A number that describes a specific stage within oscillation in any periodic phenomenon.

    Photon

    A quantum of electromagnetic energy having both particle and wave behavior which has no charge or mass, but possesses momentum.

    NOTE: the energy of light, x-rays, gamma rays, etc. is carried by photons.

    Pion

    A pion carries the strong force that holds the nucleus of atoms together.

    Planck's Constant <1>

    (6.67259) (10-34)

    Potential Energy

    The energy stored by an object because of its position or condition.

    Primary Colors of Light

    The three colors (red, green, blue) that are able to produce all colors in the spectrum.

    Proton

    An elementary particle found in the nucleus of all atoms. The protons carry a unit positive charge equal to the negative charge of electrons and are approximately 1,836 times larger than electrons.

    Pulse

    A single, non-repeated disturbance.

    Quantum

    A discrete unit, photon, or packet of energy.

    Quarks

    These are changed subatomic particles that make up protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus. There are six different quarks: up; down; strange; charmed; truth (top) and beauty (down)

    Radiation

    The process of transferring energy by means of electromagnetic wave motion, for example, ultra-violet rays from the sun.

    Radiation

    Giving off, or capable of giving off, radiant energy in the form of particles or rays (alpha, beta, or gamma) by the spontaneous disintegration of atomic nuclei.

    Red Shift

    The Doppler effect applied to light. The spectra of the stars that are moving away from the earth are shifted towards the red.

    Refraction

    The bending of a light wave as it enters a second medium (EXAMPLE: bending of light wave when it goes from air to water).

    Rest Mass

    The mass of an object at rest with respect to the observer.

    Scientific Law

    An event that occurs with unvarying regularity, such as the Law of Gravity.

    Simple Machines

    There are five basic types of simple machine: pulley, lever, screw, inclined plane and the wheel and axle.

    Solar Cell

    Cells that convert the energy from the sun into electrical energy.

    Specific Gravity

    The density of a substance relative to the density of water.

    NOTE: the density of water is 1 gram/ml. Objects with a specific gravity less than 1 would float in water, while objects greater than one would sink.

    Specific Heat

    The amount of heat that is required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance 1 Celsius. NOTE: every substance has its unique specific heat value.

    Speed of Light

    186,000 miles per second or (3) (108) meters per second

    Standing Wave

    The net effect of two wave trains of the same amplitude, frequency, and wavelength traveling in opposite directions

    Strain

    The relative amount of distortion produced in a body under stress.

    Strain = (change in dimension) (original dimension)

    Stress

    The distortion force per unit area.

    Stress = (force) (area)

    Strong Interaction

    The force that holds the protons and neutrons together in the nucleus of an atom.

    NOTE: these protons and neutrons are referred to as nucleons.

    Sublimation

    The direct change from a solid state to a vapor state without first becoming a liquid.

    Terminal Velocity

    The maximum velocity reached when an object is falling in a viscous medium such as air.

    Tesla

    The unit for measure of magnetic flux density that is equal to one Newton/ ampere-meter.

    Thermodynamics

    The branch of science relating the transformation of energy from one form into another.

    Transverse Wave

    A wave (like an electromagnetic wave) where the vibrations are at right angles to the direction of the wave propagation

    Trough

    The region of downward displacement in a "0e68">transverse wave.

    Ultrasonic Range

    Vibrations that can not be heard by the human ear that are greater than 20,000 vibrations.

    Vaporization

    The changing of a liquid to a vapor.

    Velocity

    Measures how an object changes its position with time.

    Weight

    The net gravitational pull on an object.

    Work

    There are three units commonly used to denote work:

    Joules (Newton-meter) = metric system

    Foot-pound = English system

    Erg (Dyne-centimeters) = Metric system

    P0 x0   H 0`0     

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    X0X H X0X0PX      X0X0h X0X0X  H `   X0x(                            p0        P00       00P  X0P  0          X0              0  P P0H X0X0X0H  X  X  p      p  PJ)kc323"#32#"303232"33"#32#"3033"#32#"3303"333"3332"30332"303"332 303"#0303"#33032"#3"#30332"#2"3"#3303"#3"#30332"3"#3"33032"32"303032"#3"#3333030303030333"#31333"#2#30330303"3233312"303032#3"3113230303"3"#31332#333"3"33132#3332#2#31332#3332#"313132#3332#"33132#3332#"31311332#33032#"313133"#33333"#3133132"#30030332#3333132"30033033132"3330333132"3030333033331333313333133333333133333330333030313130303113130303313332"31313332"#33133032#"33#31303032#"#313"3103032"2#3132#231332"#"#32"3"3303"2"3"3"#3013032"#3"#"#331332"32#3"33133032"3"303113032"331332"#303130331330330333303030303303303303030333333PlK,"""!""!"!""""!""!"!""!"!" "!"" "!"!" ""!"" "!"!" """""!"!" """ " "!"!"" ""!"" "!""""!"!""!""!"!""!"""""!" """!""""!" "!"" "!"" ""!"""!"" ""!""""!"!" ""!""""""""""""""""""""""" "!"""!"" "!""""!""" "!""""!"!" " ""!""!""!"!""!""!"!"" ""!"" ""!"""!"" ""!"!"""!""!"""!"!""""!" " "!""" ""!""!"""!"!""!"!""!""""""""!"""""""PPlK,"""""""""!"!"!"!"!"!"!""!""" """!" " """"""" " "" "!"!" ""!"" " """ "" " "!"!"  " "!"" """"""!"!" " "!"!" ""!"! " !"!" """!" " "!""""!"" ""!"""""!"" " " "!"" """!" "" ""!"" "" " "!""" "!"""""!" """!"!"!""!"""!!"!""""""""""PPJ)kc3333330330303033033333033"3003"3332#32"33"#32#33032#2"#2#332#2"#2#333"2"32"3"#3"#"303032#"332"#32"3"2#333233"#32#13#30303"31313"3303#31"3"31323033"33"#32"313"303032#3132#32#3132#3303"#3132#32#3132"30332#332"3"#33132#303323#3332"3"#331323#30332333"3"3133#3332333"#32"3133#333231313#32333#33323313#323133#3332313113#3231313#30332313113#32311313#3332313113#32311313#30332313113"#32"33313#30332"3113"3"333"#333"#3133332"333"#3133"3"3332"30332#3332"3"#3332#3030323332#32#333#30303"#3133"#32"3132"333#3132"3"#313230303#"#313"#32"332"230303"2#3"3"32#"3332#"3"3"3"2#303032"32"#332"#3"#333"#3032"30303"303"3333333033333303030330303033333333PP/"/""/""""""/"/""/""/3/"3"//""//""////""////""//?//3?/3?3/"33?/"?3?/"??""??"/3"/"3"/"/"/"//"///"/""""""""/////"/""////""?/3//3?""3/33//3""3//""//""/"/"/"""/"""/""/"""/"""/"/"/""/""/"/"""//""/""///""/////""/////////""/////""//""/""///"/""""/"/"""/"/"/""/"""/""""/""/""/""/"/"/"""/"//""///""//////""/""/////""//""///"/"""""///"""/"/""""/""/"/"""/"/""/""/"/""/""/"/"/"""/"//""///""//////""/""/////""//""///"/"""""//"//"""/""/""/"/""""/""/"""/"/"//""""""?"/3""///""//""////""////"/"3??3" """/"/"//"//"//"3?//?3""??//"/""/"/"/""""""/""/"""/"/"/"/"""/""/""/"/""""""/"/3?//3?"/"/3"3?"//33"3?3""3??//""//""//""/"//???//3???3//3333?//!3333?//!3?333?"//3?3"//??///////"/"//?""??/?33?/?33??""3?3?33?//33?/3""3"3///""/"/"/"//"/"/""""/"/"""""/"/""/""/"/"""/"///"///"/"""////"""////3?"3"3?/"3"33"/3?3?//33?//313"33"3?3?"?3?""33/" 3?3"33?//333?3?/" ?33 ?/"/?33??/"/333??"/"33?3/" 3?"/33/??//3?3/33?/"3?""3?3"/33/3?3?/"3?3?/333""3?"/3?//3/""""////"""/"/"/"""/""""/""""/"/"""///""""////""""////""3?//3"33"/1?//31333?//1?/"33"3//1?3//1?1//?1//?1//?1//?/33/"1?"/?1//1?33/"33"/1?/33?//313/3?/"3"////"/"""/""//""/"/""/"/"""/"HTML

    Most good word processors on the market today can convert normal text into a format know as the HyperText Markup Language (HTML) which is used to create all the pages on the World Wide Web (the Internet). HTML is a series of server side interpreted "0ea8">formatting codes.

    See "0ea7">WYSIWYG

    WYSIWYG

    A term often associated with word processors is WYSIWYG. This means "What You See Is What<1>You Get" which means that the way your document is displayed on your monitor is how it will look when its printed. Most word processors today use this format, but older applications didnt show how the formats, fonts and other aspects of the document would look until they were printed.

    Formatting Codes

    Word processors insert formatting codes (that usually arent displayed) into parts of the text that need to be changed. For example, if you wanted a word to be in boldface a code would be placed directly in front of that word, telling the program that anything after this point will be printed in boldface. At the end of the word, you turn off the bold function, and a code is inserted that tells the program to stop printing in boldface. These codes control how everything looks and is printed.

    See "0ea6">HTML

    Spelling and Grammar Checkers

    Spell and grammar checking programs contained in word processors work by comparing each word in the document (or arrangement of words recognized as nouns, verbs, etc., when using a grammar checker) to a database. If the word is found, no action is taken. If the word is not found, a dialog box appears letting the user know that the word might be misspelled. The user is shown a list of possible spellings to choose from, or the user can make his own changes, or can even choose to ignore the suggestion, leaving everything as it is.

    Type and Format

    Database managers let you define the type and format of the data youre tracking. For example, you might enter a number (which can be specified as a data type) that you type as 03/30/00 and the "format" youve chosen--a "date"--might display it as March 30, 2000 or Mar 30, 2000 or any one of many other display choices.

    Records and Fields

    Data is stored in recordsa collection of data about a specific place, thing or person. The data is usually then broken down into fields. A music database might have your favorite group as the record. The individual fields might include the albums release, the date they were release, the songs included on the album and so on. Adding data to a record is made easy using on-screen forms to enter information into the various fields.

    Tables

    Records that have the same fields are known as a table. A computerized address book would be an example of a table.

    Query

    You can query the information in a database, asking it to display all the address with a specific zip code, or maybe youre looking for a list of friends that live in North Dakota.

    Sorting

    When you ask a question of your database program, it will first sort the data, grouping the same zip codes together. Usually the results will be organized in some kind of numerical or alphabetical format for display on your monitor, or for printing.

    Filters

    Once the data has been sorted, it will then be filtered. On a good database program, you will be able to specify that you only want records displayed or printed that are in Utah and have a zip code of 84070--all the other records will be filtered out.

    Logic Tests

    Database managers can perform mathematical equations on data entered. They can also perform logic tests on the resultsif the bill is less than 30 days past due, it wont get added to the list of accounts that are 60 days past due. These test use "01c5">boolean logic ("if this is true, do this").

    Reports

    After all the calculations, sorting and filtering are complete, the resulting data can be placed in an easy-to-use report that has been formatted to your specifications. Your music database report might highlight the most recent CD released by your favorite group and the date you purchased it, as well as a list of the other CDs you own.

    Scripts

    Some of the more powerful databases have their own script languages that allow you to create new "01bc">applications to manage specific tasks that werent included in the original application. Some of the scripts are simple, other are complex enough to be considered a programming language.

    Relational and Flat-File Databases

    The more powerful databases are also generally relational databasesmeaning they can define relationships among common elements of different tables. Other database managers are known as flat-file managers, meaning they can only work with one table at a time.

    Platters

    Platters are hard, round plates that spin at very high speeds in your hard drive. Several platters are often stacked above each other in a single hard drive to increase storage capacity.

    The Logic Board and Controller

    A logic board located at the bottom of the drive get commands from the drive's controller which gets its commands from the operating system and BIOS. The logic board turns these commands into various voltage fluctuations that cause the head actuator to move the read/write across the surface of the platters. The logic board also keeps the platters rotating at a consistent speed, and tells the drive heads when to write to the platters or read from them. The disk controller is actually part of the logic board in an IDE (Integrate Drive Electronics) disk.

    Head Actuators

    Head actuators are the mechanisms that move the heads across the platters and aligns them with the tracks on those platters. This is done with microscopic precision. The heads then write data to those areas of the disk, or read the information already stored there.

    FAT

    A file allocation table is basically just an index of all the sectors and tracks on the drive. It also keeps track of what sectors have been written to and which are available to receive new data.

    VFAT

    The VFAT keeps a record of the cluster (which might be scattered anywhere on the disk) in which a file begins. The operating system using this every time it wants to retrieve files from the disk. Every time a new file is written to the disk, the heads return to the VFAT to add the new file and the clusters it occupies to the index.

    Dividing Hyphenated Words

    Divide hyphenated words at the hyphen. <1>EX: <1>ready-made <1>all-fired <1>window-dressing

    Dividing Words Containing a Prefix

    In words made up of a prefix and a word, always divide after the whole prefix. <1>EX: <1>antecedent = ante-cedent <1>antibiotic = anti-biotic <1>cooperation = co-operation <1>biannual = bi-annual <1>nonexistent = non-existent Dividing Words Containing a Suffix

    In words where the final consonant is doubled in the formation of inflected forms by the addition of a suffix, the division should be between the consonants. <1>EX: <1>dim-mer <1>bar-ring <1>control-ling

    If the root word ends in a double or single consonant, make the division after the consonant(s). <1>EX: <1>fall-en <1>confid-ing <1>confess-ing

    Dividing Statistical Units

    Do not divide temperatures, years, time, latitudes, longitudes or similar units. <1>EX: <1>1400 BC <1>SSW <1>4:30 A.M.

    Grammar

    Grammar is the parts of a language along with its rules for writing and speaking that language.

    "025f">Adjective

    "0260">Adverb

    "0261">Clause

    "0262">Conjunction

    "0263">Interjection

    "0264">Noun

    "0265">Participle

    "0266">Phrase

    "0267">Preposition

    "0268">Pronoun

    "0269">Sentence

    "026a">Subject

    "026b">Verb

    "0a4c">Verb Tense

    Greek & Latin Prefixes <2> 1>

    Prefix

    Origin

    Meaning

    acro

    Greek

    top, high

    aero-

    Greek

    air

    alti-

    Latin

    high

    amphi-

    Greek

    both, around

    ana-

    Greek

    not, wrong

    andro-

    Greek

    man

    ante-

    Latin

    before

    anthro-

    Greek

    man

    aqua-, aque

    Latin

    water

    arch(i)-

    Greek

    chief, main

    archaeo-

    Greek

    very old

    arthro-

    Greek

    joint

    Punctuation

    "09ce">Apostrophe '

    "09d6">Brackets [ ]

    "09db">Colon :

    "09dc">Comma ,

    "09ed">Dash -

    "09f6">Ellipsis

    "09f8">Exclamation Point !

    "0a00">Hyphen -

    "0a1b">Parenthesis ( )

    "0a1e">Period .

    "0a34">Question Mark ?

    "0a35">Quotations- Single ' '

    "0a35"">Quotations- Double " "

    "0a3a"">Semicolon ;

    "0a4f"">Virgule /

    Greek & Latin Suffixes <2> 1>

    Prefix

    Origin

    Meaning

    -archy

    Greek

    rule

    -biosis

    Greek

    life

    -chrome

    Greek

    color

    -cide

    Latin

    kill

    -cracy

    Greek

    form of rule

    -derm

    Greek

    skin

    -drome

    Greek

    running

    -emia

    Greek

    of the blood

    -fuge

    Latin

    away from

    -gamy

    Greek

    marriage

    -geny

    Greek

    bearing

    -gon

    Greek

    angle

    -grade

    Latin

    walking

    -gram,-graph

    Greek

    writing

    -hedron

    Greek

    having sides

    -iatrics

    Greek

    treatment of disease

    -itis

    Greek

    disease

    -lepsy

    Greek

    attack

    -lith

    Greek

    made of stone

    -logy

    Greek

    spoken, a theory or science

    -mania

    Greek

    type of madness

    -meter

    Greek

    instrument

    -nomy

    Greek

    laws ruling

    -oid

    Greek

    in the form of

    -opia

    Greek

    of the eye

    -ous

    Latin

    having the qualities of, full

    -pathy

    Greek

    feeling, suffering

    -phany

    Greek

    appearance

    -phobia

    Greek

    fear, dread

    -phone

    Greek

    sound Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez De

    1795 - 1876<1>Mexican soldier and statesman who, after serving several times as President of Mexico, made himself Dictator of Mexico. He put down the Texas revolt for independence at the Alamo in San Antonio (March 1836) and later was defeated by General Sam Houston at San Jacinto River.

    Sargon I

    Circa 2637 - 2582 BC<1>Ancient King of Babylon who established Akkadian rule over all Sumeria.

    Seward, William Henry

    1801 - 1872<1>Secretary of State for both the Lincoln and Andrew Johnson administrations who was responsible for negotiating the purchase of Alaska from Russia. Not understanding the value of the purchase, people called the Alaskan deal "Seward's folly" and "Seward's frog pond."

    Stalin, Joseph

    1879 - 1953<1>Russian Dictator and Secretary-General of the Communist Party of Soviet Russia who was responsible for carrying out the three five-year plans of the Soviets. He was also Supreme Commander of the Red Army during World War II.

    Thatcher, Margaret

    1925 -<1>First woman to become Prime Minister of Britain, May 3, 1979. The 1982 victory in the Faulkland's War aided in her re-election to a second term in 1983. In June 1987 she won a third consecutive term.

    Theodoric the Great

    Circa 454 - 526<1>Established the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy after the fall of Rome.

    Trotzky, Leon

    1879 - 1940<1>Russian-Jew who after the revolution rose from obscurity to the second most powerful position in Russia. He was exiled from Russia in 1928 when he contended for power with Stalin after the death of Lenin and was assassinated in 1940 by a political assassin.

    Truman, Harry S.

    1884 - 1972<1>Thirty-third President of the United States who took office on April 12, 1945 after the death of President Roosevelt. He pushed for the "fair deal" to aid backward regions and in 1950 ordered American troops to aid South Korea. In 1951 he relieved General MacArthur of his commands for opposing his (Truman's) Korean policies.

    Turner, Nat

    1800 - 1831<1>American Negro slave who led the Southampton Insurrection and who claimed to have been appointed by god to deliver the Negro people from slavery. Turner was later hanged along with a number of his followers.

    Victoria, Queen

    1819 - 1901<1>Queen of England from 1838 to 1901 who was very popular and admired by her subjects. The power of the monarch was limited, and the Prime Minister had greater government control during this period. Some of the reforms enacted during her reign were the Reform Bill of 1867, to give people the right to vote, and religious freedom.

    Washington, George

    1732 - 1799<1>First President of the United States and was sworn into office June 15, 1775. He was named Commander-in-Chief of all colonial forces. Voted president in February 1789. The government capitol at this time was New York City, but moved to Philadelphia in 1790 and finally to Washington, DC in 1800.

    Wilson, (Thomas) Woodrow

    1856 - 1924<1>Twenty-eighth President of the United States whose first administration was 1913 to 1917. World War I broke out in 1914 and Wilson issued a neutrality proclamation to keep the US out of the war. His second administration was 1917 - 1921. On April 6, 1917 the US declared war on Germany. Wilson's draft covenant of League of Nations is accepted by Allies and Germany but rejected by US Senate.

     @    (""     """""" " " "  " "" " """"  """ " " " "  " "   " "  "" " "" " " "  "@("!"""  " " " ""  "" "" """ """ "  " "" " " " """" " """" "" "" " "" ! "" "" !"  ""  " " " " !" ""  " """ " " "" ((""    "   " "  " """" "" "   "     " "" " " "" " "" """" """" "" "H0"""!"!""  "!   "" " """ "" "" """ " " "   ""   " !  "" " " "" """"""  "" " "   """ """"" " """"""""" "" " """"  ""`0""""" "!""!   "  " " " ""  "" " ""  "" "" """ " """" " " " "" "" "  " "   "" "    " " " " " ""  """" " " " """ "" " """ """"" " " """  " """" "  " " " "" "" " "  "" " " " "" " "" " "  ""   " " " ""  "" " " "" " " """ " "" " "    8H PI

    The real number is defined to be the "06ca">ratio of the "0651">circumference of a given circle to its "0656">diameter. That is, = (circumference)/(diameter). It is a fact that this ratio is the same no matter which circle you start with. The first 20 digits of the decimal expansion of are

    = 3.14159265358979363846

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    dummy file

    (                  Common Ions

    ION

    FORMULA

    acetate

    C2H3O2

    aluminum

    Al+3

    ammonium

    NH4+

    barium

    Ba+2

    bromate

    BrO3-

    bromide

    Br-

    calcium

    Ca+2

    carbonate

    CO3-2

    chlorate

    ClO3

    chloride

    Cl-

    chlorite

    ClO-2

    chromate

    CrO4-2

    chromium (III)

    Cr+3

    cobalt (II)

    Co+2

    copper (I)

    Cu+

    copper (II)

    Cu+2

    cyanate

    CNO-

    cyanide

    CN-

    dichromate

    Cr2O7+2

    fluoride

    F-

    hexacyanoferrate (II)

    Fe(CN)6-4

    hexacyanoferrate (III)

    Fe(CN)6-3

    hydride

    H-

    hydrogen carbonate [bicarbonate]

    HCO3

    hydrogen sulfate [bisulfate]

    HSO4

    hydronium

    H3O+

    hydroxide

    OH-

    hypochlorite

    ClO-

    iodide

    I-1

    iron (II)

    Fe+2

    iron (III)

    Fe+3

    lead (II)

    Pb+2

    magnesium

    Mg+2

    mercury (I)

    Hg2+2

    mercury (II)

    Hg+2

    nickel (II)

    Ni+2

    nitrate

    NO3-

    nitrite

    NO2-

    oxalate

    C2O4-2

    oxide

    O-2

    perchlorate

    ClO4-

    permanganate

    MnO4-

    peroxide

    O2-2

    phosphate

    PO4-3

    phosphide

    P-3

    phosphite

    PO3-3

    potassium

    K+

    silver

    Ag+

    sodium

    Na+

    sulfate

    SO4-2

    sulfide

    S-2

    sulfite

    SO3-2

    thiocyanate

    CNS-

    thiosulfate

    S2O3-2

    tin (II)

    Sn+2

    tin (IV)

    Sn+4

    zinc

    Zn+2

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